tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-76641379438247792092024-03-19T00:45:16.482-04:00khaliphilosophykareem khalifa's musings on philosophy & musicKKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.comBlogger27125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-83374039714867477042021-02-14T20:26:00.003-05:002021-02-14T21:16:00.573-05:00Stance Voluntarism Bibliography<p><span style="font-family: inherit;">The following is my best attempt at a comprehensive bibliography of the literature on "stance voluntarism" in the philosophy of science. Please let me know of anything I've missed!</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Baumann, Peter. 2011. "Empiricism, stances, and the problem of voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):27-36. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9519-7.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Bitbol, Michel. 2007. "Materialism, stances, and open-mindedness." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Boucher, Sandy. 2018. "Stances and Epistemology: Values, Pragmatics, and Rationality."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metaphilosophy</i> 49 (4):521-547. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/meta.12317.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Boucher, Sandy C. 2015. "Functionalism and structuralism as philosophical stances: van Fraassen meets the philosophy of biology."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Biology and Philosophy</i> 30 (3):383-403.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Boucher, Sandy C. 2018. "What is the Relation between a Philosophical Stance and Its Associated Beliefs?"<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dialectica</i> 72 (4):509-524. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-8361.12251.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Bryant, Amanda. forthcoming. "Book Symposium: Anjan Chakravartty’s Scientific Ontology A Thousand Flowers on the Road to Epistemic Anarchy: Comments on Chakravartty’s Scientific Ontology."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dialogue</i>.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Bueno, Otávio. 2015. "Realism and Anti-Realism about Science: A Pyrrhonian Stance."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>International Journal for the Study of Skepticism</i> 5 (2):145-167. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/22105700-04031176.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravartty, Anjan. 2004. "Stance relativism: empiricism versus metaphysics: The Empirical Stance Bas C. Van Fraassen; Yale University Press, London & New Haven, 2002, pp. xix+282, Price £22.50 hardback, ISBN 0300088744."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A</i> 35 (1):173-184. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2003.12.002.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravatty, Anjan. 2007. "Six degrees of speculation : metaphysics in empirical contexts." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton, 183-208. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravartty, Anjan. 2011. "A puzzle about voluntarism about rational epistemic stances."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):37-48. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9516-x.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravartty, Anjan. 2015. "Suspension of Belief and Epistemologies of Science."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>International Journal for the Study of Skepticism</i> 5 (2):168-192. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/22105700-04031178.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravartty, Anjan. 2017. <i>Scientific ontology : integrating naturalized metaphysics and voluntarist epistemology</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravartty, Anjan. 2018. "Feelings in Guts and Bones: Reply to Lewis, Magnus, and Strevens."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metascience</i> 27 (3):379-387. doi: 10.1007/s11016-018-0341-z.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Chakravartty, Anjan. 2018. "Realism, Antirealism, Epistemic Stances, and Voluntarism." In <i>The Routledge Handbook of Scientific Realism</i>, edited by Juha Saatsi, 225-236. Routledge.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Cruse, Pierre. 2007. "Van Fraassen on the nature of empiricism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metaphilosophy</i> 38 (4):489-508. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2007.00498.x.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Dicken, Paul. 2009. "Constructive Empiricism and the Vices of Voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>International Journal of Philosophical Studies</i> 17 (2):189-201. doi: 10.1080/09672550902794421.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Donhauser, Justin, and Jamie Shaw. 2019. "Knowledge transfer in theoretical ecology: Implications for incommensurability, voluntarism, and pluralism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A</i> 77:11-20. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2018.06.011.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Elder, Jamee. 2019. "Defending stance voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Philosophical Studies</i> 176 (11):3019-3039. doi: 10.1007/s11098-018-1161-0.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Forbes, Curtis. 2017. "A pragmatic, existentialist approach to the scientific realism debate."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 194 (9):3327-3346. doi: 10.1007/s11229-016-1015-2.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Jauernig, Anja. 2007. "Must empiricism be a stance, and could it be one? how to be an empiricist and a philosopher at the same time." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton, 271-318. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Jones, Ward E. 2011. "Being moved by a way the world is not."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):131-141. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9522-z.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Kusch, Martin. 2020. "Stances, Voluntarism, Relativism." In <i>Idealism, Relativism, and Realism: New Essays on Objectivity Beyond the Analytic-Continental Divide</i>, edited by Dominik Finkelde and Paul M. Livingston, 131-154. De Gruyter.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Kvanvig, Jonathan L. 1994. "A critique of van Fraassen's voluntaristic epistemology."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 98 (2):325-348. doi: 10.1007/BF01063946.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Ladyman, James. 2004. "Discussion: Empiricism versus Metaphysics." Review of The Empirical Stance, Bas C. van Fraassen. <i>Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition</i> 121 (2):133-145.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Ladyman, James. 2011. "The scientistic stance: the empirical and materialist stances reconciled."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):87-98. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9513-0.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Lewis, Peter J. 2018. "Inferring particles."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metascience</i> 27 (3):357-364. doi: 10.1007/s11016-018-0340-0.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Lipton, Peter. 2004. "Discussion: Epistemic Options." Review of The Empirical Stance, Bas C. van Fraassen. <i>Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition</i> 121 (2):147-158.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Lowe, E. J. 2011. "The rationality of metaphysics."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):99-109. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9514-z.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Magnus, P. D. 2018. "Cautious realism and middle range ontology."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metascience</i> 27 (3):365-370. doi: 10.1007/s11016-018-0342-y.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Massimi, Michela. 2011. "From data to phenomena: a Kantian stance."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 182 (1):101-116.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">McMullin, Ernan. 2007. "Taking an empirical stance." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Monton, Bradley John, ed. 2007. <i>Images of empiricism : essays on science and stances, with a reply from Bas C. van Fraassen</i>, <i>Mind Association occasional series</i>. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Okruhlik, Kathleen. 2014. "Bas van Fraassen's Philosophy of Science and His Epistemic Voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Philosophy Compass</i> 9 (9):653-661. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12158.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Psillos, Stathis. 2003. "Putting a Bridle on Irrationality: An Appraisal of Van Fraassen’s New Epistemology." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton, 288-319. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Ratcliffe, Matthew. 2011. "Stance, feeling and phenomenology."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):121-130. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9525-9.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Richardson, Alan. 2011. "But what then am I, this inexhaustible, unfathomable historical self? Or, upon what ground may one commit empiricism?"<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):143-154. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9523-y.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rowbottom, Darrell Patrick. 2005. "The Empirical Stance vs. The Critical Attitude."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>South African Journal of Philosophy</i> 24 (3):200-223. doi: 10.4314/sajpem.v24i3.31427.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rowbottom, Darrell P. 2011. "Stances and paradigms: a reflection."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):111-119. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9524-x.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rowbottom, Darrell P., and Otávio Bueno. 2011. "Stance and rationality: a perspective."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):1-5. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9526-8.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Rowbottom, Darrell P., and Otávio Bueno. 2011. "How to change it: modes of engagement, rationality, and stance voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):7-17. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9521-0.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Steup, Matthias. 2011. "Empiricism, metaphysics, and voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):19-26. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9518-8.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Strevens, Michael. 2018. "Explanation and reality: comment on Chakravartty."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metascience</i> 27 (3):371-378. doi: 10.1007/s11016-018-0343-x.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Surovell, Jonathan Reid. 2019. "Stance empiricism and epistemic reason."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 196 (2):709-733. doi: 10.1007/s11229-017-1539-0.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Teller, Paul. 2004. "Discussion: What Is a Stance?" Review of The Empirical Stance, Bas C. van Fraassen. <i>Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition</i> 121 (2):159-170.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Teller, Paul. 2011. "Learning to live with voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):49-66. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9517-9.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">van Fraassen, Bas C. 2002. <i>The empirical stance</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">van Fraassen, Bas C. 2004. "Precis of "The Empirical Stance"."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition</i> 121 (2):127-132.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">van Fraassen, Bas C. 2004. "Replies to Discussion on "The Empirical Stance"." Review of The Empirical Stance, Bas C. van Fraassen. <i>Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition</i> 121 (2):171-192.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">van Fraassen, Bas C. 2007. "From a view of science to a new empiricism." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton, 337-383. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">van Fraassen, Bas C. 2007. "From a view of science to a new empiricism." In <i>Images of Empiricism: Essays on Science and Stances, with a Reply From Bas C. Van Fraassen</i>, edited by Bradley John Monton. Oxford University Press.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">van Fraassen, Bas C. 2011. "On stance and rationality."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):155-169. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9520-1.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Veigl, Sophie Juliane. 2020. "Notes on a complicated relationship: scientific pluralism, epistemic relativism, and stances."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i>. doi: 10.1007/s11229-020-02943-2.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Williamson, Jon. 2011. "Objective Bayesianism, Bayesian conditionalisation and voluntarism."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Synthese</i> 178 (1):67-85. doi: 10.1007/s11229-009-9515-y.</span></p><p class="p1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36px; text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Wylie, Alison. 1986. "Arguments for scientific realism: the ascending spiral."<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i> 23 (3):287-297.</span></p>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-1262024796301203402020-07-30T09:05:00.001-04:002020-07-30T09:05:21.399-04:00An Exciting Way to Fix the NBA Draft<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="color: white;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a>Currently, there are 30 teams in the NBA, 16 of which make the playoffs. The question of what to do with the 14 remaining teams is interesting. I propose the following “Draft Battles.” The basic idea is this:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Ref46992072">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Non-playoff teams are broken into three groups. The teams with the four worst records compete for positioning among the draft spots 1-4 (call this Tournament A); the team with the next four worst records battle for positioning among draft spots 5-8 (Tournament B); the teams with the next four worst records, for 9-12 (Tournament C). For now, I assume that the top 2 non-playoff teams play a single game to determine whether they pick 13<sup>th</sup> and 14<sup>th</sup> in the draft.</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Ref46992074">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>If two teams have identical records but only one can go to a given tournament, then they play one game. The winner goes to the Tournament that has the better draft positioning. For example, if there is a tie for the fourth-worst record, then the teams would play one game, with the winner going to Tournament A, and the loser going to Tournament B.</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Each Tournament matchup is a single game; not a multi-game series.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Let’s use Tournament A to work out some details. The points readily extrapolate to Tournaments B and C.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Let’s call the with the worst record Team 1, and extrapolate this nomenclature accordingly. Then Team 4 would be the team with the best record in Tournament A.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>The first-round seeding would thus be Teams 1 and 4 play each other; as do Teams 2 and 3. The winners of the first round are guaranteed a draft position of now lower than 2<sup>nd</sup>. The losers of the first round are guaranteed a draft position of no lower than 4<sup>th</sup> and no higher than 3<sup>rd</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>For illustration’s purposes, let’s assume that things go as expected, Teams 3 and 4 win the first round. Then in the second round, they would play each other to determine the first two draft positions. There would be a consolation game between Teams 1 and 2 to determine who drafts third and fourth. Imagine that this also goes as expected, and Team 4 beats Team 3 in Tournament A’s “final”, and Team 2 beats Team 1 in Tournament A’s consolation match. Then the draft order would be the exact opposite of the records: Team 4 would draft 1<sup>st</sup>, Team 3 would draft 2<sup>nd</sup>, Team 2 would draft 3<sup>rd</sup>, and Team 1 would draft 4<sup>th</sup>. This is no worse than what could happen to the team with the worst record in the current draft lottery.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">Advantages of this system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Added postseason intrigue. In addition to the regular playoffs, there would be the Draft Battle. When there are none of the ties (See 1.a), this would add 14 games. Since there has been talk of shortening the regular season, this would be one way to do so without losing revenue. Presumably, Draft Battles would generate significant ratings because the stakes—draft position—are higher than the regular season games that these teams would be playing. This will be especially exciting when there are heavily hyped prospects, such as Zion Williamson.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Less tanking. If a team knew that it had to at least get two postseason wins to secure the top draft position, then the team would need to make sure that it is competitive come the Draft Battle. Note that this is a significant incentive to invest in player development. A young team is likely to have a poor regular season, which will be good for draft positioning, but may really start to hit its stride just in time for the Draft Battle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Of course, there are still ways of gaming the system. Teams could bench their quality players for most of the regular season and then reactivate them just in time for the Draft Battle. However, I don’t think this would be any worse than the status quo.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-60596800657487463182019-08-03T14:25:00.000-04:002019-08-19T11:40:59.845-04:00Interpretivism in the Social Sciences: A 21st Century Bibliography<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">I am compiling a bibliography about "interpretivist" approaches in the social sciences and their critics. Loosely stated, these approaches claim that social-scientific methodology differs profoundly from natural-scientific methodology. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">I largely restrict my focus to 21st-century sources in anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology, and philosophy of the social sciences. It should be noted that the term "interpretivism" is used in other disciplines such as nursing, international relations, philosophy of mind, information systems, organizational studies, business, and law. To keep this bibliography manageable, I'm omitting these more "applied" fields.<br /><br />I'll be building this bibliography as follows: owing to prior research, I have a very uneven selection of works on this topic already in my personal bibliography. That's the starting point. As time permits, I'll build it up by looking at individual years, starting with 2000 and making my way to the present. I will update incrementally. Currently, I would only deem my bibliographical information up through 2001 to be "complete."<br /><br />If I've overlooked something (especially your own work!), please let me know, though please also note that if most of an edited book is pertinent, then I do not include its individual chapters as separate entries. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>2000</b></span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Alexander, J. (2000). Theorizing the Good Society: Hermeneutic, Normative and Empirical Discourses. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">The Canadian Journal of Sociology / Cahiers canadiens de sociologie, 25</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 271-309. doi:10.2307/3341644</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Aronowitz, S., & Robert, A. (2000). A Critique of Methodological Reason. </span><i style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">The Sociological Quarterly</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">, 41(4), 699-719.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Bryant, J. M. (2000). On sources and narratives in historical social science: a realist critique of positivist and postmodernist epistemologies*. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">The British Journal of Sociology, 51</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 489-523. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2000.00489.x</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Gadamer, H.-G. (2000). Subjectivity and intersubjectivity, subject and person. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Continental Philosophy Review, 33</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(3), 275-287.</span><span style="text-indent: -36px;"> </span></span></li>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Gomm, R., Hammersley, M., & Foster, P. (2000). </span><i style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Case study method: Key issues, key texts.</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"> Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Groeben, N., & Scheele, B. (2000). Dialogue-hermeneutic Method and the "Research Program Subjective Theories. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 1</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(2). doi:10.17169/fqs-1.2.1079</span></span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Harrington, A. (2000a). In Defence of <i>Verstehen</i> and <i>Erklären</i> Wilhelm Dilthey's Ideas Concerning a Descriptive and Analytical Psychology. <i>Theory & Psychology</i>, 10(4), 435-451. doi:10.1177/0959354300104001</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Harrington, A. (2000b). Objectivism in Hermeneutics?: Gadamer, Habermas, Dilthey. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>, 30(4), 491-507. doi:10.1177/004839310003000401</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Harrington, A. (2000c). Alfred Schutz and the ‘Objectifying Attitude’. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Sociology, 34</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(4), 727-740.</span></span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Kleining, G., & Witt, H. (2000). The Qualitative Heuristic Approach: A Methodology for Discovery in Psychology and the Social Sciences. Rediscovering the Method of Introspection as an Example. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">2000, 1</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1). doi:10.17169/fqs-1.1.1123</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Kögler, H. H., & Stueber, K. R. (Eds.). (2000). </span><i>Empathy and agency: the problem of understanding in the human sciences</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Lapadat, J. C. (2000). Problematizing transcription: purpose, paradigm and quality. <i>International Journal of Social Research Methodology</i>, 3(3), 203-219. </li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Lewandowski, J. D. (2000). Thematizing Embeddedness:Reflexive Sociology as Interpretation. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 30</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 49-66. doi:10.1177/004839310003000103</span></span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Madill, A., Jordan, A., & Shirley, C. (2000). Objectivity and reliability in qualitative analysis: Realist, contextualist and radical constructionist epistemologies. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">British Journal of Psychology, 91</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 1-20. doi:10.1348/000712600161646</span></span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Madison, G. B. (2000). Critical Theory and hermeneutics: Some outstanding issues in the debate. In L. E. Hahn (Ed.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Perspectives on Habermas</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 463-482). Chicago: Open Court Publishing.</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Martin, M. (2000). <i>Verstehen: the uses of understanding in social science</i>. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Orbe, M. P. (2000). Centralizing diverse racial/ethnic voices in scholarly research: the value of phenomenological inquiry. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(5), 603-621. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(00)00019-5</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Pettit, P. (2000). Winch’s double-edged idea of a social science. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">History of the Human Sciences, 13</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 63-77.</span> </li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Phillips, D. C. (2000). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">The expanded social scientist's bestiary : a guide to fabled threats to, and defenses of, naturalistic social science</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.</span></span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Polkinghoime, D. E. (2000). Psychological Inquiry and the Pragmatic and Hermeneutic Traditions. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Theory & Psychology, 10</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(4), 453-479. doi:10.1177/0959354300104002</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Rennie, D. L. (2000). Grounded Theory Methodology as Methodical Hermeneutics: Reconciling Realism and Relativism. <i>Theory & Psychology</i>, 10(4), 481-502. doi:10.1177/0959354300104003</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Richardson, F. C. (2000). Overcoming Fragmentation in Psychology: A Hermeneutic Approach. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">The Journal of Mind and Behavior, 21</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 289-304. </span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Risjord, M. (2000). </span><i>Woodcutters and witchcraft: rationality and interpretive change in the social sciences</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">. Albany: State University of New York Press.</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Schwandt, T. A. (2000). Three epistemological stances for qualitative inquiry: Interpretivism, hermeneutics, and social constructionism. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), <i>Handbook of qualitative research</i> (2nd ed., pp. 189–213). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Smaling, A. (2000). What kind of dialogue should paradigm-dialogues be? </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Quality and Quantity, 34</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 51-63. </span></span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Topper, K. (2000). In Defense of Disunity: Pragmatism, Hermeneutics, and the Social Sciences. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Political Theory</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">, 28(4), 509-539.</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Williams, M. (2000). Interpretivism and Generalisation. <i>Sociology</i>, 34(2), 209-224.</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
</span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /><b>2001</b></span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Alexander, J., & Smith, P. (2001). The Strong Program in Cultural Theory: Elements of a Structural Hermeneutics. In J. H. Turner (Ed.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Handbook of Sociological Theory</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 135-150). Boston, MA: Springer US.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Andersen, H. (2001). Gender inequality and paradigms in the social sciences. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Social </span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Science Information, 40</span></i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 265-289. doi:10.1177/053901801040002004</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Anderson, K., & Smith, S. J. (2001). Editorial: Emotional Geographies. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 26</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 7-10.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Atkinson, P. (Ed.) (2001). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Handbook of ethnography</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage Publications.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Attride-Stirling, J. (2001). Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research. </span><i style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Qualitative Research, 1</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 385-405. doi:10.1177/146879410100100307</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Baptiste, I. (2001). Qualitative data analysis: Common phases, strategic differences. <i>Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 2</i>(3). doi:10.17169/fqs-2.3.917</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Beeman, W., & Peterson, M. A. (2001). Situations and interpretations: Explorations in interpretive practice. <i>Anthropological Quarterly, 74</i>(4), 159-162. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><style type="text/css">
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</style>Boettke, P., & Koppl, R. (Eds.). (2001). <span style="text-indent: -36px;">Special Issue on Alfred Schütz Centennial, <i>Review of Austrian Economics, </i></span><span style="text-indent: -36px;">14 (2/3)</span><span style="text-indent: -36px;">.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Bonner, K. M. (2001). Reflexivity and Interpretive Sociology: The Case of Analysis and the Problem of Nihilism. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Human Studies, 24</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(4), 267-292. doi:10.1023/a:1012214826614</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Bransen, J. (2001). <i>Verstehen </i>and<i> Erklären</i>, Philosophy of. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), <i>International encyclopedia of the social and behavioural Sciences</i> (pp. 16165-16170). Oxford: Elsevier Science.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Buzzoni, M. (2001). The Operationalistic and Hermeneutic Status of Psychoanalysis. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Journal for General Philosophy of Science, 32</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 131-165. doi:10.1023/a:1011204208271</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Caplan, B. (2001). Probability, Common Sense, and realism: A reply to Hülsmann and Block. <i>Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, 4</i>(2), 69-86. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Crinson, I. (2001). <i>A realist approach to the analysis of focus group data.</i> Paper presented at the 5th Annual IACR Conference, Roskilde University, Denmark.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Crossley, N. (2001). The Phenomenological Habitus and Its Construction. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Theory and Society, 30</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 81-120.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Cupchik, G. (2001). Constructivist Realism: An Ontology That Encompasses Positivist and Constructivist Approaches to the Social Sciences. <i>Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 2</i>(1). doi:10.17169/fqs-2.1.968</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Dennett, D. C. (2001). The Evolution of Culture. <i>The Monist, 84</i>(3), 305-324. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Dobres, M.-A. (2001). Meaning in the making: agency and the social embodiment of technology and art. In M. B. Schiffer (Ed.), </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Anthropological perspectives on technology</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 47-76). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Making social science matter : why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Oxford, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Follesdal, D. (2001). Hermeneutics. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 82</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(2), 375-379. doi:10.1516/1d08-f6v9-yvpj-a79w</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Forstater, M. (2001). Phenomenological and Interpretive-Structural Approaches to Economics and Sociology: Schutzian Themes in Adolph Lowe's Political Economics. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">The Review of Austrian Economics, 14</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(2), 209-218. doi:10.1023/a:1011164201386</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Geertz, C. (2001). Empowering Aristotle. [Making Social Science Matter Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Bent Flyvbjerg. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001.]. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Science, 293</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(5527), 53. doi:10.1126/science.1062054</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Gordon, R. M. (2001). Simulation and Reason Explanation: The Radical View. </span><i style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Philosophical Topics, 29</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">(1/2), 175-192.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Harrington, A. (2001a). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Hermeneutic dialogue and social science : a critique of Gadamer and Habermas</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. London: Routledge.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Harrington, A. (2001b). Dilthey, Empathy and Verstehen: A Contemporary Reappraisal. </span><i style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">European Journal of Social Theory, 4</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">(3), 311-329. doi:10.1177/13684310122225145</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Harrison, J., MacGibbon, L., & Morton, M. (2001). Regimes of trustworthiness in qualitative research: The rigors of reciprocity. <i>Qualitative inquiry, 7</i>(3), 323-345. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Hein, S. F., & Austin, W. J. (2001). Empirical and hermeneutic approaches to phenomenological research in psychology: A comparison. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Psychological methods, 6</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 3-17.</span><span style="text-indent: -36px;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Kleining, G., & Witt, H. (2001). <i>Discovery as basic methodology of qualitative and quantitative research.</i> Paper presented at the Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Lewandowski, J. D. (2001). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Interpreting culture : rethinking method and truth in social theory</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Marsh, D., & Smith, M. J. (2001). There is More than One Way to Do Political Science: on Different Ways to Study Policy Networks. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Political Studies, 49</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(3), 528-541. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00325</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Martin, J., & Sugarman, J. (2001). Interpreting Human Kinds:Beginnings of a Hermeneutic Psychology. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Theory & Psychology, 11</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 193-207. doi:10.1177/0959354301112003</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Meyer, C. B. (2001). A case in case study methodology. <i>Field methods, 13</i>(4), 329-352.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Morse, J. M., Swanson, J. M., & Kuzel, A. J. (Eds.). (2000). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">The nature of qualitative evidence</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Nentwich, J. C. (2001). The process of understanding in qualitative social research. In M. Kiegelmann (Ed.), <i>Qualitative research in psychology</i> (Vol. 1, pp. 240-245). Schwangau: Ingeborg Huber Verlag.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Outhwaite, W. (2001). History of hermeneutics. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences.</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(pp. 6661-6665). London: Elsevier.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Rantala, K., & Hellstrom, E. (2001). Qualitative comparative analysis and a hermeneutic approach to interview data. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 4</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(2), 87-100. doi:10.1080/13645570118545</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (2001). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Handbook of action research : participative inquiry and practice</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. London ; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Reason, P., & Torbert, W. R. (2001). The action turn: Toward a transformational social science. <i>Concepts and Transformation, 6</i>(1), 1-37. doi:10.1075/cat.6.1.02rea</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Reckling, F. (2001). Interpreted Modernity: Weber and Taylor on Values and Modernity. <i>European Journal of Social Theory, 4</i>(2), 153-176. doi:10.1177/13684310122225055</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Roberts, J. (2001). Dialogue, Positionality and the Legal Framing of Ethnographic Research. <i>Sociological Research Online, 5</i>(4), 1-14. doi:10.5153/sro.542</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Schreier, M. and </span>Fielding</span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">, N. (Eds.) (2001). Qualitative and Quantitative Research: Conjunctions and Divergences A New FQS-Volume. <i>Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung, 26</i>(1 (95)), 187-218.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Schneider, K. J., Bugental, J. F. T., & Pierson, J. F. (2001). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">The handbook of humanistic psychology : leading edges in theory, research, and practice</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Scott, J. W., & Keates, D. (2001). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Schools of thought : twenty-five years of interpretive social science</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Sharkey, P. (2001). Hermeneutic phenomenology. In R. Barnacle (Ed.), </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Phenomenology</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 16-37). Melbourne: RMIT University Press.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Travers, M. (2001). </span><i style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Qualitative research through case studies. </i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Valsiner, J. (2001). The First Six Years: Culture’s Adventures in Psychology. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Culture & Psychology, 7</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(1), 5-48. doi:10.1177/1354067x0171002</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Walker, G. (2001). Society and culture in sociological and anthropological tradition. <i>History of the Human Sciences, 14</i>(3), 30-55</span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">.</span></li>
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<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>2002</b></span><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Baert, P. (2002). Pragmatism versus sociological hermeneutics. In J. Lehmann (Ed.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Critical theory: Diverse objects, diverse subjects</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 349-365). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Barbalet, J. M. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Emotions and sociology</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Oxford ; Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub./Socological Review.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Bevir, M., & Rhodes, R. A. W. (2002). Interpretive Theory. In D. Marsh & G. Stoker (Eds.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Theory and methods in political science</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (2nd ed., pp. 131–152). London: Palgrave.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Boettke, P. J., & Storr, V. H. (2002). Post-classical political economy: Polity, society and economy in Weber, Mises and Hayek. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 61</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 161-191. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Breckner, R., & Rupp, S. (2002). Discovering biographies in changing social worlds: the biographical-interpretive method. In P. Chamberlayne, M. Rustin, & T. Wengraf (Eds.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Biography and social exclusion in Europe-experiences and life journeys</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 289-308). Bristol, UK: Policy Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Carver, T. (2002). Discourse analysis and the ‘linguistic turn’. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">European Political Science, 2</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 50-53. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Clarke, S. (2002). Learning from experience: psycho-social research methods in the social sciences. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Qualitative Research, 2</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 173-194. doi:10.1177/146879410200200203</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Davis, J. B., & Schwandt, T. A. (2002). [Verstehen: The Uses of Understanding in Social Science, Michael Martin]. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Contemporary Sociology, 31</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 236-237. doi:10.2307/3089546</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Dostal, R. J. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">The Cambridge companion to Gadamer</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Fairclough, N., Jessop, B., & Sayer, A. (2002). Critical Realism and Semiosis. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Aletheia, 5</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 2-10. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Finch, J. H., & McMaster, R. (2002). On categorical variables and non‐parametric statistical inference in the pursuit of causal explanations. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Cambridge Journal of Economics, 26</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(6), 753-772. doi:10.1093/cje/26.6.753</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Flick, U. (2002). Qualitative research-state of the art. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Social Science Information, 41</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 5-24. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Gadamer, H.-G., Malpas, J., Arnswald, U., & Kertscher, J. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Gadamer's century : essays in honor of Hans-Georg Gadamer</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Green, P. (Ed.) (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Slices of Life: Qualitative Research Snapshots</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Melbourne: RMIT University Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Greenhouse, C. J. (2002). Introduction: Altered states, altered lives. In C. J. Greenhouse, E. Mertz, & K. B. Warren (Eds.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Ethnography in unstable places: everyday lives in contexts of dramatic political change</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 1-34). Durham: Duke University Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Guignon, C. (2002). Hermeneutics, authenticity and the aims of psychology. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 22</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 83-102. doi:10.1037/h0091216</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Habermas, J. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">On the pragmatics of social interaction: Preliminary studies in the theory of communicative action</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Halas, E. (2002). Ethical Dilemmas of 'Verstehen' in Sociology: Theodore Abel's Encounter with Nazism. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Polish Sociological Review</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(138), 173-187. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41274815</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Hałas, E. (2002). Symbolism and Social Phenomena: Toward the Integration of Past and Current Theoretical Approaches. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">European Journal of Social Theory, 5</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 351-366. doi:10.1177/136843102760513947</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Hitzler, R. (2002). The Reconstruction of Meaning. The State of the Art in German Interpretive Sociology. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">2002, 3</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2). doi:10.17169/fqs-3.2.867</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Huberman, A. M., & Miles, M. B. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">The qualitative researcher's companion</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Kim, K.-M. (2002). On the Failure of Habermas's Hermeneutic Objectivism. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Cultural Studies </i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: -36px;">↔</span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;"> Critical Methodologies, 2</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 270-298. doi:10.1177/153270860200200216</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Lerner, B. D., & Winch, P. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Rules, magic and instrumental reason : a critical interpretation of Peter Winch's philosophy of the social sciences</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. London New York: Routledge.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Marsh, D., & Furlong, P. (2002). A skin not a sweater: ontology and epistemology in political science. In V. Lowndes, D. Marsh, & G. Stoker (Eds.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Theory and methods in political science</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 17-41). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Martin, J. (2002). Hermeneutic psychology: Understandings and practices. In S. P. Shohov (Ed.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Advances in Psychology Research</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 14--97): Nova Science Publishers.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">May, T. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Qualitative research in action</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. London: Sage.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">McAllister, J. W. (2002). Historical and Structural Approaches in the Natural and Human Sciences. In P. Tindemans, A. Verrijn-Stuart, & R. Visser (Eds.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">The Future of the Sciences and Humanities</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 19-62). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Moules, N. J. (2002). Hermeneutic Inquiry: Paying Heed to History and Hermes An Ancestral, Substantive, and Methodological Tale. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 1-21. doi:10.1177/160940690200100301</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Mruck, K., Roth, W.-M., & Breuer, F. (2002). Subjectivity and Reflexivity in Qualitative Research I (Special Issue). </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 3</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(3). doi:10.17169/fqs-3.3.822</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Pleasants, N. (2002). </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Wittgenstein and the idea of a critical social theory: A critique of Giddens, Habermas and Bhaskar</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">. London: Routledge.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Ratner, C. (2002). Subjectivity and Objectivity in Qualitative Methodology. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 3</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3). doi:10.17169/fqs-3.3.829</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Rennie, D. L., Watson, K. D., & Monteiro, A. M. (2002). The rise of qualitative research in psychology. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 43</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(3), 179-189. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Roth, W. D., & Mehta, J. D. (2002). The Rashomon Effect:Combining Positivist and Interpretivist Approaches in the Analysis of Contested Events. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Sociological Methods & Research, 31</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(2), 131-173. doi:10.1177/0049124102031002002</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Rubaie, T. A. (2002). The rehabilitation of the case-study method. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 5</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 31-47. doi:10.1080/13642530210159198</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Schatzki, T. (2002). Social Science in Society. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Inquiry, 45</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(1), 119-138. doi:10.1080/002017402753556652</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Smith, D. G. (2002). Hermeneutic Scholar. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Counterpoints, 183</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">, 183-200. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Strauss, D. F. M. (2002). Understanding in the humanities: Gadamer’s thought at the intersection of rationality, historicity, and linguisticality–with special reference to the dialectics of causality and history. </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">South African journal of philosophy, 21</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">(4), 291-305. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;">Toulmin, S. (2002). The Hermeneutics of the Natural Sciences. In B. E. Babich (Ed.), </span><i style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -36px;">Hermeneutic Philosophy of Science, Van Gogh’s Eyes, and God: Essays in Honor of Patrick A. Heelan, S.J.</i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: -36px;"> (pp. 25-29). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
</span>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>2003</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>2004</b></span><br />
<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Millar, A. (2004). <i>Understanding people: normativity and rationalizing explanation. </i>Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b>2005</b></span><br />
<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Risjord, M. (2005). Reasons, Causes, and Action Explanation. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>, 35(3), 294-306. doi:10.1177/0048393105277987</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b>2006</b></span><br />
<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Stueber, K. R. (2006). <i>Rediscovering empathy: agency, folk psychology, and the human sciences</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b>2007</b><br /><br /><b>2008</b></span><br />
<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Hollan, D. (2008). Being There: On the Imaginative Aspects of Understanding Others and Being Understood. <i>Ethos</i>, 36(4), 475-489. </li>
<li>Hollan, D., & Throop, C. J. (2008). Whatever happened to empathy?: Introduction. <i>Ethos</i>, 36(4), 385-401. </li>
<li>Reed, I. (2008). Justifying Sociological Knowledge: From Realism to Interpretation. <i>Sociological Theory</i>, 26(2), 101-129. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2008.00321.x</li>
<li>Stueber, K. R. (2008). Reasons, generalizations, empathy, and narratives: the epistemic structure of action explanation. <i>History and Theory</i>, 47(1), 31-43. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2303.2008.00434.x</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b>2009</b></span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<div>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>2010</b></span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span><br />
<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Beatty, A. (2010). How Did It Feel for You? Emotion, Narrative, and the Limits of Ethnography. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 112(3), 430-443. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01250.x</li>
<li>Feest, U. (2010). <i>Historical Perspectives on Erklären and Verstehen</i>: Springer.</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<br /><b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2011</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Martin, J. L. (2011). <i>The explanation of social action</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li>
<li>Reed, I. (2011). <i>Interpretation and social knowledge : on the use of theory in the human sciences</i>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2012</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Mantzavinos, C. (2012). Explanations of meaningful actions. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>, 42(2), 224-238. </li>
<li>Stueber, K. R. (2012). Understanding versus explanation? How to think about the distinction between the human and the natural sciences. <i>Inquiry</i>, 55(1), 17-32. doi:10.1080/0020174X.2012.643621</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2013</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Stueber, K. R. (2013). The causal autonomy of reason explanations and how not to worry about causal deviance. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>, 43(1), 24-45. </li>
<li>Turner, S. P. (2013). Where explanation ends: understanding as the place the spade turns in the social sciences. <i>Studies in history and philosophy of science part A</i>, 44(3), 532-538. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.12.001</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2014</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Beatty, A. (2014). Anthropology and emotion. <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, 20(3), 545-563. doi:10.1111/1467-9655.12114</li>
<li>Turner, S. P. (2014). Evidenz: The Strength of Weak Empathy. In S. P. Turner (Ed.), <i>Understanding the Tacit</i> (pp. 184-200). London: Routledge.</li>
<li>Watts, D. J. (2014). Common Sense and Sociological Explanations. <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, 120(2), 313-351. doi:10.1086/678271</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2015</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Lichterman, P., & Reed, I. A. (2015). Theory and contrastive explanation in ethnography. <i>Sociological Methods & Research</i>, 44(4), 585-635. </li>
<li>Matta, C. (2015). Interpretivism and Causal Explanations: A case from educational research. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>, 45(6), 543-567. </li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2016</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Fay, B. (2016). <i>Verstehen</i> and the Reaction against Positivism. In L. McIntyre & A. Rosenberg (Eds.), <i>The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Social Science</i> (pp. 49-60). London: Routledge.</li>
<li>Grimm, S. R. (2016). How Understanding People Differs from Understanding the Natural World. <i>Philosophical issues</i>, 26(1), 209-225. doi:10.1111/phis.12068</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2017</b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li>Grimm, S. R. (2017). Why Study History? On Its Epistemic Benefits and Its Relation to the Sciences. <i>Philosophy</i>, 92(3), 399-420. doi:10.1017/S003181911700002X</li>
<li>Turco, C. J., & Zuckerman, E. W. (2017). Verstehen for Sociology: Comment on Watts. <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, 122(4), 1272-1291. doi:10.1086/690762</li>
<li>Watts, D. J. (2017). Response to Turco and Zuckerman’s “Verstehen for Sociology”. <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, 122(4), 1292-1299. doi:10.1086/690763</li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2018</b><br /><br /><b style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">2019</b></span><br />
<ul><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Khalifa, K. (2019). Is <i>Verstehen</i> Scientific Understanding? <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>. doi:10.1177/0048393119847104</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Mantzavinos, C. (2019). A Dialogue on Understanding. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 49</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(4), 307-322. doi:10.1177/0048393119847106</span></li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Stueber, K. R. (2019). Empathy. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2019 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/empathy/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/empathy/</a>.</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;">Stueber, K. R. (2019). The Ubiquity of Understanding: Dimensions of Understanding in the Social and Natural Sciences. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>, 49(4), 265-281. doi:10.1177/0048393119847103</li>
<li style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Turner, S. (2019). Verstehen Naturalized. </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 49</i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">(4), 243-264. doi:10.1177/0048393119847102</span></li>
</span></ul>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">
</span></div>
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</style>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-71274946909597415782019-08-02T13:58:00.001-04:002019-08-02T17:21:11.649-04:00The Book's Debunking Move<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/u/1/null" name="_GoBack"></a><a href="https://blogs.helsinki.fi/pylikosk/" style="color: #954f72;">Petri Ylikoski</a> has very kindly <a href="https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/understanding-explanation-and-scientific-knowledge/">reviewed my book</a>. His review raises three interesting questions that I address here.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><u>1. The relevance of epistemology to philosophy of science</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Here is Ylikoski’s overarching assessment of the book:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">I confess that I have always been doubtful of the relevance of analytical epistemology for philosophy of science. I think Khalifa's book demonstrates this with respect to theories of understanding. (I don't know if he himself would agree with this.) However, I am happy that somebody has worked through the literature.</span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">To be honest, I don’t know if I agree with this either. I mean this quite literally: I have insufficient information to tell you whether I agree with Ylikoski’s claim that epistemology is irrelevant to philosophical theories of scientific understanding. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Allow me to explain. Give or take a few niceties, what I hoped to “demonstrate” in my book is that understanding is scientific knowledge of an explanation. Objections to that thesis come from both epistemologists and philosophers of science. I would have thought that objections are relevant to a thesis. That would entail the exact opposite of what Ylikoski claims: if successful, the book would have shown that epistemology is <i>relevant</i> to theories of scientific understanding. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Perhaps Ylikoski meant that none of the answers to these objections required extensive appeal to epistemology. However, as I argue in Chapter 2, an epistemological concept—safety—most sharply distinguishes my view from that of our fellow philosopher of science, <a href="https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/understanding-scientific-understanding/">Henk de Regt</a>. It’s also difficult for me to see how my discussions of luck (in Chapter 7) and epistemic value (in Chapter 8) don’t involve some epistemological theorizing. So, I think that epistemology is relevant in this sense, too.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">What can be gleaned from my book is that philosophers interested in what explanations are and what makes one explanation better than another ought not find understanding especially "deep." Alternatively stated:</span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"> </span></div>
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<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Philosophers would be better served by constructing a theory of understanding out of our best theories of explanation and explanatory power than the other way around. </span></li>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Call this the (book’s main) <i>debunking move</i>. I stand by that claim, and if Ylikoski thinks that I’ve demonstrated that, then I’ve succeeded in the book’s overarching mission.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">There is a certain sense in which the debunking move shows that epistemology is irrelevant to philosophy of science. In the philosophical division of labor, theories of explanation and of explanatory power fall mainly under the purview of philosophers of science. So, if the debunking move is sound, then there would be little left for epistemologists to contribute to a theory of understanding. I suspect that Ylikoski would welcome this result.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><u>2. How much abstraction is too much?</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Ylikoski’s main misgiving with my book is that my account of understanding is “too abstract… to consider things like (theoretical or practical) trade-offs between different dimensions of explanatory goodness, or various relations between explanations.” I am puzzled by this assessment. Ylikoski does not indicate how any of my arguments requires a story about these tradeoffs. Indeed, he voices no misgivings about any of the book’s arguments. This suggests that my account of explanation is not too abstract to perform the tasks to which I set it. Indeed, </span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">not only do these tradeoffs play no role in establishing a theory of understanding, the debunking move suggests that understanding should play no role in accounting for these tradeoffs. So, I fail to see why Ylikoski thinks that I should be addressing this issue.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><u>3. The sense and varieties of understanding</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">The debunking move’s targets are not just epistemologists working on understanding—it also includes philosophers of science working on understanding. Since this seems to include some of <a href="https://philpapers.org/s/ylikoski%20understanding" target="_blank">Ylikoski's work</a>, I suspect that he thinks this is a bridge too far. This suspicion is confirmed by the two issues he raises as loci for further philosophical theorizing about understanding: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">(a) “It seems that some kind of sense (or feeling) of understanding has an important regulative role in our cognitive lives. It tells us when we need acquire more knowledge and when we have enough understanding to provide an explanation.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">(b) “We understand both scientific representations (theories, models, graphs, etc.) and phenomena with the help of those representations.” I only address the second of these kinds of understanding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Ylikoski and I are just going to have disagree about how interesting these issues are. I admit that these probably signal differences in taste more than anything else.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Regarding (a): my view is that the most interesting way of determining whether we have enough understanding isn’t from the sense of understanding; it’s from the conversational context. That may have more to do with agents’ social statuses (as experts communicating to laypersons, for example) than anything going on in their heads. Because none of the book’s arguments hinged on developing these ideas, they were mentioned only in passing (especially in Chapters 1 and 6.) Furthermore, contra Ylikoski, I don’t see why the (philosophically interesting) sense of understanding isn’t reducible to beliefs about what one understands. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Regarding (b): When it comes to understanding, I can easily see why the explanations and predictions to which scientific representations contribute are of philosophical interest. By contrast, I do not see what’s philosophically interesting about scientific representations’ “legibility” or “user-friendliness.” <a href="http://www.eesullivan.com/" style="color: #954f72;">Emily Sullivan</a> and I briefly discuss our skepticism about legibility's epistemic value in our recent <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SULIAU" style="color: #954f72;">paper</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Despite these disagreements, I am grateful to Ylikoski for prompting me to state the debunking move a bit more explicitly than I did in the book.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-25860410820770232872019-03-02T10:56:00.003-05:002019-03-02T10:56:51.444-05:00Why Can't Empiricists Explain The Success of Science?<span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;">I'm teaching my <a href="http://sites.middlebury.edu/philsci/" target="_blank">course on scientific realism</a> again. I especially enjoy it as an opportunity to re-trace the historical evolution of the realist and antirealist positions. In particular, I'm struck by the following: an earlier version of a realist argument might have been quite cognizant that it blunted a certain line of criticism (call it X), but then that argument is revised in response to something else in a manner that makes realists vulnerable to X. Here's one that's really struck me re-reading early versions of the "No Miracles Argument.":</span><br />
<br />
<li><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Originally, scientific realists claimed that they, but not empiricists, could explain science's empirical success. Very roughly, the thought was that the realist could claim that the approximate truth of a theory best explains its empirical adequacy, but the empiricist was stuck claiming that a theory's empirical adequacy explains its empirical adequacy, which is no explanation at all.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">However, owing to the pessimistic induction, the realist's explanandum became restricted to high-grade empirical success, such as novel prediction. Hence, the revised realist claim is that a theory's approximate truth explains its high-grade empirical success.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">However, to my knowledge, few have noted that this means that empiricists thereby </span><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>have</i></span><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> an explanation of high-grade success. Empiricists can claim that a theory's empirical adequacy explains its high-grade empirical success. This is no longer circular, and indeed seems to be part of a general class of "success explanations," X's general reliability in domain D explains why X achieved a high-grade success in D. Ex. LeBron James' athleticism and basketball prowess explains why he was able to run down the shooter and block the latter's shot.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">At this point, however, one may note that empirical adequacy, at least as defined by van Fraassen, is unlikely to be the true of any theory. However, so long as the empirical success in the explanans is more encompassing than the high-grade empirical success, empiricists can explain the high-grade empirical success. Let's call this general kind of empirical success which explains high-grade success </span><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>empirical reliability, </i>which is roughly akin to "approximate empirical adequacy."</span></span></li>
<li><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">What I can't see quite clearly is whether this empiricist explanation of high-grade success is better or worse than the realist explanation. But, of course, this has always been a difficulty with using Inference to the Best Explanation to adjudicate anything.</span></span></li>
KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-1525602225803123232018-06-08T11:34:00.001-04:002018-06-08T11:39:31.257-04:00Why I Do Not Want A Tight-Knit Middlebury Community<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-6909454522048974273" itemprop="description articleBody" style="line-height: 1.4; position: relative; width: 646px;">
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;">Many colleagues at my institution think that, unlike larger universities, we at Middlebury College ought to be a tight-knit community. In a series of posts, I hope to describe and recommend an alternative, <i>loose-knit </i>community that I envision. Since I am most familiar with the academic faculty’s role in the College’s community, I focus on this, though future posts may anticipate some of its implications for other members of the community. Ideally, each post would stimulate discussion, which in turn would help me to sharpen my formulations, so that I (and perhaps others) might better understand the costs and benefits of different communal structures at liberal arts colleges in general, and Middlebury in particular.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />In this post, I first clarify the distinction between tight- and loose-knit faculty communities. I then consider and reject the idea that faculty members' obligations to teach effectively entails a further obligation to form and maintain tight-knit communities. I conclude by providing some general contours for other arguments in favor of tight-knit faculty communities that I intend to criticize in future posts.</span></span><br />
<h2>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: large;">Drawing a Distinction</span><br /><span style="font-size: small;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></h2>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><b><o:p></o:p></b>I begin by characterizing the distinction between tight- and loose-knit faculty communities.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;">As a first pass, we might think that an <i>ideal </i>tight-knit community is one in which every community member knows every other community member. Knowing another means having accurate information about his/her motivations and beliefs, at least as concerns the workings of the College. I should say that some colleagues seem to suggest that knowing a coworker also requires knowing that coworker <i>outside of his/her professional capacities</i>. However, this strikes me as rather invasive. I take it as obvious that not every coworker should know about every other coworker’s personal life. I do not know if all of my colleagues share this opinion.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;">As mentioned above, I focus on faculty members’ role in the College community. Faculty members’ responsibilities fall into three broad categories: teaching, research, and service. Thus,<br />to know a faculty member in his/her professional capacity is to know his/her motivations and beliefs about his/her own teaching, research, and service. So, as a utopian ideal, every faculty member of a tight-knit community would have accurate information regarding every other faculty member’s motivations and beliefs regarding teaching, research, and service. Of course, a more realistic goal for a tight-knit community would only require <i>most </i>faculty members to have accurate information about <i>majority opinions </i>of the faculty regarding these three domains of faculty responsibility. Hereafter, I shall take this less utopian description of a tight-knit community as my working definition.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;">So, let’s simply take a loose-knit community as the negation of a tight-knit community: it’s a community in which no more than a few faculty members have accurate information about the majority opinions of faculty concerning teaching, service, and research. Note that a loose-knit community need not entail that every faculty member is completely ignorant of every other faculty member. For instance, a loose-knit community might consist of several tight-knit sub-communities who are unaware of other sub-communities’ institutional motivations and beliefs. One obvious loose-knit community that has this structure is one in which the only tight-knit sub-communities are departmental, but this is neither the only such loose-knit community of this kind, nor do I think it is the best of this kind.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;">Finally, there are some imprecise terms in these formulations. What counts as “many” and “few” faculty members? As it turns out, very little will hinge on this. Indeed, my arguments below will mostly work the extreme case of a loose-knit community in which <i>no </i>individual has knowledge of majority opinions among the faculty. One might also worry about how to characterize a “majority opinion.” Is it a simple majority or a supermajority or something else? However, in a realistic tight knit-community, we should not expect a faculty member to have anything more than imprecise knowledge, e.g. “A majority of faculty members believe that…, but some have argued to the contrary on the grounds that…,” even if they cannot quantify “majority” or how many are opposed.</span></span><br />
<h2>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: large;">Do Tight-Knit Communities Improve Teaching?</span><br /><span style="font-size: small;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></h2>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><b><o:p></o:p></b>In this post, I critique one argument for a tight-knit community. I conclude this post with a framework for generating other arguments in favor of tight-knit communities. In subsequent posts, I hope to criticize these arguments as well.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />The following assumption animates much of what I say. Forming and maintaining loose-knit communities is less resource-intensive than forming and maintaining tight-knit communities. In short, in loose-knit communities, time and effort spent getting to know faculty opinions can be allocated to other pursuits. Hence, unless there must be sizable benefits to a tight-knit community in order to offset these costs. I shall argue that there is nothing so obviously beneficial of a tight-knit community that fits this job description. Hence, faculty members are under no obligation to form and maintain a tight-knit community.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />I think it obvious that there is at least one aim shared by all College constituencies: the teaching of students. No other institutional aim enjoys this kind of consensus. As a result, an argument that tight-knit communities are an effective means of improving teaching would be especially persuasive. So, let us consider whether tight-knit communities produce better teaching than loose-knit communities in such a manner as to obligate faculty members to form and maintain such a community. (<i>Spoiler alert</i>: this argument does not work.)</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />One might think that if most faculty members knew what other colleagues were doing pedagogically, then everyone would have more resources for improving their own teaching. In short, there would be a repository of best practices that could be shared among the faculty. However, this rests on the following assumption, which I will call the Principle of Pedagogical Transferability (PPT):</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />A teaching practice successfully wielded by one liberal arts college professor in a particular class, discipline, etc. has a high probability of succeeding when wielded by another liberal arts college professor in a different class, discipline, etc. </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />Ultimately, PPT is an empirical proposition that, to my knowledge, has not been confirmed, and would be difficult to confirm without clear methods of individuating teaching practices, classes, and pedagogical success. Indeed, my own experiences tell me that a teaching practice wielded by me in one philosophy class doesn’t have a high probability of being successful when wielded by me in another philosophy class. In slogan form: most pedagogy is local.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />Since PPT is not obviously true, the question then becomes one of whether the resources allocated for achieving a tight-knit community are worth it given that the prospects of pedagogical improvement are uncertain. It seems to me that there can be reasonable disagreement about this. Hence, there is no <i>obligation </i>to participate in a tight-knit community on the (shaky) grounds that it will improve your teaching. Hence those who do not opt in to a tight-knit community have done nothing wrong or bad.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />Furthermore, one might very well boost the probability in question by devoting more time and effort to getting to know only those faculty members who have teaching practices that look most relevant to one’s own. Hence, it may very well be that the best way to improve one’s teaching is to form tight-knit sub-communities, and to largely ignore what those in vastly different pedagogical contexts are doing. </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />Thus, I conclude that the argument that tight-knit communities should be formed and maintained in order to improve teaching is unsound.</span></span><br />
<h2>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">3.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: large;">A Look Ahead</span><br /><span style="font-size: small;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></h2>
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><b><o:p></o:p></b>As mentioned above, this is only one of several arguments in favor of tight-knit communities to consider (and in my case, criticize.) I conclude by providing a framework for generating other arguments of this sort. </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />First, one may offer different definitions of a tight-knit community. I have opted for one that seems to impose relatively modest demands on the faculty, in the hopes that any shortcomings with this definition would apply, <i>a fortiori</i>, to more demanding conditions. However, since my arguments are of a cost-benefit variety, there may be a sweet spot where a more demanding conception of a tight-knit community would yield greater benefits. An interesting question is whether such conceptions are realistic or feasible. </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />Second, one may challenge my claim that forming and maintaining loose-knit communities are less resource-intensive than tight-knit communities. I personally do not see how this could be defensible, but this may merely reflect a lack of imagination on my part.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br />Third, one may look for other potential benefits of tight-knit communities than their effects on teaching. I think that this is the most fruitful source of generating more arguments for tight-knit communities. Here, I briefly sketch a typology of such benefits. Above, I considered an argument in which tight-knit communities are a means to better teaching. However, tight-knit communities might be a means to other ends. Since I’m focusing on faculty’s obligations to contribute to a tight-knit community, it would be natural to explore arguments for tight-knit communities as a means to better research and better service. Additionally, it may be that a tight-knit faculty community does not serve the faculty’s ends, but serves some other College constituencies ends (such as the Trustees’, administration’s, staff’s, or students’). And, finally, it may be that tight-knit faculty communities are not a means to some further end, but are ends unto themselves. More on these arguments in the future.</span></span></div>
KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-53845639788330869252017-12-07T07:48:00.002-05:002017-12-07T07:54:45.287-05:00Stop the Non-Confrontational BullshitI have recently been struck by a segment of the population
that holds the following commitments:<br />
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(a)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Free Speech Principle</i>: Free speech should
not be restricted, even in cases where this involves the expression of racist,
sexist, homophobic, etc. ideas.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(b)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Anti-Bigotry Principle: </i>Racism,
sexism, homophobia, etc. are bad, and we should seek to eliminate them.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(c)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Non-Confrontational Principle: </i>Because discussions about racism, sexism,
homophobia, etc. are uncomfortable, we should seek to avoid them.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The tension between these three principles should be
evident. In particular, the tension between free speech and anti-bigotry are
the topic of much debate. For the sake of argument, I will grant that they can
somehow be reconciled, such that we know how to handle the tough cases in which
they offer conflicting counsel. Let me also say that, even beyond the sake of
argument, I am sympathetic to both.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>I am more
interested in how the non-confrontational principle interacts with these two
commitments. The non-confrontational principle doesn’t have quite the air of
moral authority of the free speech and anti-bigotry principles. Of course,
ceteris paribus, we should not make people uncomfortable, but very rarely is
ceteris paribus in any discussion that matters. For instance, we should not
avoid talking about colon cancer because thinking about someone’s ulcerated GI
tract makes some of us squeamish. Similarly, we should not avoid talking about racism
simply because highlighting its mechanisms and effects makes some of us
self-conscious.<o:p></o:p></div>
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There is also something especially
hypocritical about outspoken advocates of free speech and anti-bigotry being non-confrontational.
After all, if one believes that free speech is important enough that one is willing
to grant it to bigots, whom one recognizes are doing a bad thing that should be
eliminated, then it seems very odd to discourage others from exercising their
free speech with the aim of identifying bigotry and its effects—these would
appear to be good things given one’s opposition to bigotry.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Yet, I think that a nontrivial
segment of the left espouses precisely these three commitments. Given that the
non-confrontational principle does not appear to enjoy the same status as the free
speech and anti-bigotry principles, and also seems to invite legitimate charges
of hypocrisy, why would one hold it? I speculate that, in some cases at least,
a plausible explanation is the phenomenon known as white fragility. <a href="http://libjournal.uncg.edu/ijcp/article/view/249" target="_blank">Robin DiAngelo</a> nicely summarizes the core of
this phenomenon:<o:p></o:p></div>
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White people in North America live
in a social environment that protects and insulates them from race-based
stress. This insulated environment of racial protection builds white
expectations for racial comfort while at the same time lowering the ability to
tolerate racial stress, leading to what I refer to as White Fragility. White
Fragility is a state in which even a minimum amount of racial stress becomes intolerable,
triggering a range of defensive moves. These moves include the outward display
of emotions such as anger, fear, and guilt, and behaviors such as
argumentation, silence, and leaving the stress-inducing situation. These
behaviors, in turn, function to reinstate white racial equilibrium.</blockquote>
<o:p></o:p></div>
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If white fragility is in place, then the non-confrontational
principle is a plausible ideology for reinforcing “white expectations for
racial comfort while at the same time lowering the ability to tolerate racial
stress.” If we’re to avoid uncomfortable conversations about race, as the
non-confrontational principle recommends, then real talk about race is taboo, uncouth, etc.<o:p></o:p></div>
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However, I want to point out that
white people aren’t alone in this. Many victims of racism, sexism, homophobia,
etc. also want to recruit the non-confrontational principle. However, there are
good reasons to think that there is no black, female, etc. fragility that explains
their invocation of the non-confrontational principle. First, people in
marginalized groups do not enjoy the same kind of “comfort” that DiAngelo attributes
to those exhibiting white fragility. Second, members of marginalized groups experience
racial (and other kinds of) stress more routinely than those who exhibit white
fragility. Third, one’s opportunities to display emotions such as anger, fear,
and guilt, and behaviors such as argumentation, silence, and leaving the
stress-inducing situation, are often an artifact of not being the victim of
racism, sexism, etc., i.e. of privilege. (To choose an example close to home: an
Arab guy with a shaved head, deep voice, etc. is only allowed to display a
limited range of anger and frustration before he comes across as ‘intimidating,’
‘threatening,’ etc.) I think that all of this points against the idea that non-white
fragilities explain marginalized individuals’ use of the non-confrontational
principle.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Now, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">perhaps</i> these considerations make marginalized individuals’ invocation
of the non-confrontational principle more justified. Furthermore, members of marginalized
groups are generally more consistent than their more fragile counterparts: they
frequently deny that bigots should have unlimited free speech. This removes
much of the hypocrisy. However, it does not erase the initial shortcomings of
the principle, namely that it lacks a sound justification. For instance, even
if one is routinely made uncomfortable by discussions of other people’s GI
tracts, that is no reason to avoid talking about colon cancer. Similarly, even
if one is the victim of routine bigotry, that is no reason to avoid conversations about bigotry.<o:p></o:p></div>
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For my part, I remain committed to giving
everyone fairly august rights to free speech. I want to know what the bigots
are thinking, and want to use every means of nonviolent expression available to
tell them the twenty-seven different ways that they’re horrible people. I also want
to tell all those fragile white people to get over themselves. So, I say to
everyone: let’s stop it with all this non-confrontational bullshit.<o:p></o:p></div>
KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-42442535841834051742017-04-24T15:40:00.001-04:002017-04-24T15:40:40.039-04:00How to be a Pragmatist in the Philosophy of Science (Part I)
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
I recently attended a workshop called “<a href="http://www.pitt.edu/~pittcntr/Events/All/Conferences/others/other_conf_2016-17/04-21-17_pragmatism/pragmatism.html">The
Pragmatic Alternative</a>.” The big question of the conference was “What is
pragmatism in the philosophy of science?” Here I offer my own answer to that
question. As I see it, pragmatism’s main foil is <i>representationalism</i>. I define
representationalism as the philosophical doctrine that scientific representations’
capacity for mirroring stuff in the world accounts for the success of
scientific practices. Here, representations are theories, models, etc.;
mirroring includes relations of correspondence, similarity, and various kinds
of iso- and homomorphisms; and stuff in the world includes objects, properties,
and structures. I take the phrase “accounting for” to include, but not be
limited to, philosophical analysis, explication, and explanation. At root, representationalism
is a commitment about the direction of such accounts: mirroring accounts for scientific
success.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The traditional reason to reject representationalism concern
so-called “placement problems.” Very roughly if part of our successful scientific
practice entails that <i>X </i>exists, then representationalists
must explain the success of the practice in terms of its ability to mirror <i>X</i>’s in the world. However, some of our
scientific practices entail modal stuff: laws, causes, necessities,
possibilities, chances, etc. How to place modal stuff into a naturalistic worldview
is widely thought to be problematic. For some, this is reason to abandon
representationalism. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Enter my brand of pragmatism, which turns representationalism’s
account on its head: successful scientific practices account for scientific
representations’ mirroring the stuff in the world. So what does this look like?
Here’s a schema for one version of this:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]--><u>Science provides solid reasons for <i>p</i>. <o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->So, <i>p</i>.
<u><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]--><i><u>p</u></i><u>
if and only if <i>p</i> is true. <o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->So, <i>p</i>
is true.<u><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Regarding the first premise: this is a proxy for actual,
first-order scientific reasons for a given claim. So, for instance, if <i>p</i> is <i>bacteria
causes ulcers</i>, then the first premise of this schema will be nothing more
than the gastrological, bacteriological, etc. evidence for this causal claim.
This also means that, in an overwhelming number of cases, the inference from
the first claim to the second will be inductive. The general thought here is
that science provides us with our best reasons for thinking that the world is the
way that it is. The next thing to note is that one can perform a number of trivial
inferences in between the second and third claims of this schema. For instance,
in our toy example, we can infer that, e.g. <i>bacteria
exist</i>, <i>something causes something, </i>and
<i>ulcers exist</i>. The schema’s second
claim, along with all of these trivial consequences, furnish us with a “naturalized
ontology.” As naturalists, we realize that our chances of getting our ontology
right once and for all no better than those of the scientists from which that
ontology is derived. This is just to say that our ontology “falls out” of
scientific practice.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Finally, consider the last two steps in this schema. In Step
3, we adopt a <i>deflationary </i>account of
representational success, i.e. one in which the mirroring relationship does no
heavy-lifting. Note that nothing hinges on choosing <i>truth</i> as the kind of representational success. It’s only that we
have a very clear account of what a deflationary theory of truth would look
like in this case. A full-blooded pragmatism would also provide deflationary
accounts of representation, reference, and the like, any of which can be used in
the third step. The move from the third to the fourth step is what allows us to
say all the things that the representationalist wants to say, without according
those claims the same elevated status that the representationalist seeks to
give. It thereby accounts for representational success (fourth claim) in terms
of scientific practice (first claim).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is a sketch, and raises several questions, which I hope
to address in another post:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Can we make sense of successful scientific
practice without already smuggling in some assumptions about mirroring? In
other words, how do we vindicate the first claim in this schema without “cheating”?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->How does this brand of pragmatism compare with
others?<o:p></o:p></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-89138478424665839812016-04-02T08:52:00.004-04:002016-04-02T08:52:57.167-04:00Knowledge, Persons, and Explanation<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 18.2px;">
<span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In my <a href="http://khaliphilosophy.blogspot.com/2016/03/ontic-epistemic-and-pragmatic-models-of.html" target="_blank">previous post</a>, I offered a clearer way of delineating different theories of explanation. I suggested that we treat epistemic theories of explanation as a subset of pragmatic theories of explanation. Here are the relevant claims:</span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A theory <i>T </i>of explanation is <i>epistemic</i> iff<sub>df</sub> according to <i>T, </i>there exists a statement of the form<i> </i>“<i>x</i> explains why <i>y</i>” that is true relative to a knowledge corpus <i>K</i><sub>1</sub> and not true relative to another knowledge corpus <i>K</i><sub>2</sub>.</span></span></span><span style="line-height: 18.2px;"> </span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A theory <i>T </i>of explanation is <i>pragmatic</i> iff<sub>df</sub> according to <i>T, </i>there exists a statement of the form<i> </i>“<i>x</i> explains why<i>y</i>” that is true relative to a person <i>S</i><sub>1</sub> and not true relative to another person <i>S</i><sub>2</sub>.</span></span></span><span style="line-height: 18.2px;"> </span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Stipulation</i>: If a statement is relative to a knowledge corpus, then it is relative to a person.</span></span></span></blockquote>
<span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">As I noted, this stipulation requires defense. Here is an initial motivation: knowledge is frequently predicated of people. For instance, <i>John</i> knows that it is raining. This, of course, is also how a majority of professional epistemologists conceive of knowledge. Hence, a knowledge corpus will refer to a/the set of propositions known by an agent.</span><br />
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 18.2px;">
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To be sure, knowledge is sometimes conceived more abstractly, e.g. as a set of propositions rather than a set of states predicated of persons. However, this conception is unstable: it will either collapse into a kind of ontic theory or a kind of pragmatic theory. Let's illustrate this with the idea that knowledge is a justified true proposition. Either this justification is <i>propositional</i>, i.e. it refers to a relation between propositions (<i>p</i> justifies <i>q</i>); or it is <i>doxastic</i>, i.e. it refers to whether a belief is justified (<i>S</i> is justified in believing that <i>q</i>). (This is a common distinction in the epistemological literature.) If justification is propositional, then epistemic theories collapse into a kind of ontic theory. While traditional ontic theories invoke more concrete entities, such as events, mechanisms, causes, etc., epistemic theories would invoke abstract entities such as propositions and whatever relations realize the "propositional justification role." However, to my knowledge, traditional ontic theories have never banned abstract properties and entities.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 18.2px;">
<span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 18.2px;">
<span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;">So, what then, if we think of justification as doxastic? This</span><span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;"> will lead to my desired result: knowledge becomes characteristic of a person. After all, it's </span><i style="color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;">S</i><span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;">'s belief that is justified, and </span><i style="color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;">S</i><span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.2px;"> is a person.</span></div>
KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-85744721543435379212016-03-21T07:15:00.000-04:002016-03-21T07:15:40.489-04:00Ontic, Epistemic, and Pragmatic Models of Explanation<div class="MsoNormal">
Not so long ago, there were thought to be three main “schools”
of explanation in the philosophy of science literature: the ontic, the
epistemic, and the pragmatic, e.g. in Wesley Salmon’s masterful “Four Decades
of Scientific Explanation.” This tripartite distinction was not employed
consistently, and might never have been articulated very precisely. I offer the
following as a useful distinction.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A theory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T</i> of
explanation is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ontic</i> iff<sub>df</sub>
according to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T, </i>there exists no statement
of the form<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>“<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> explains why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">y</i>” that is
true relative to a person <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i><sub>1</sub>
and not true relative to another person <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i><sub>2</sub>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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A theory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T </i>of
explanation is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">epistemic</i> iff<sub>df</sub>
according to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T, </i>there exists a statement
of the form<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>“<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> explains why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">y</i>” that is
true relative to a knowledge corpus <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">K</i><sub>1</sub>
and not true relative to another knowledge corpus <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">K</i><sub>2</sub>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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A theory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T </i>of
explanation is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pragmatic</i> iff<sub>df</sub>
according to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T, </i>there exists a statement
of the form<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>“<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> explains why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">y</i>” that is
true relative to a person <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i><sub>1</sub>
and not true relative to another person <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i><sub>2</sub>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Stipulation</i>: If a
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According to our stipulation and definitions, all epistemic
theories of explanation are pragmatic theories of explanation. Hence, the
fundamental divide is between ontic and pragmatic theories. Indeed, it might be more fruitful to describe the distinction as one between "impersonal" and "personal" theories.</div>
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More will need to
be said about: (a) the viability of our stipulation, (b) the “relativity-clauses” in epistemic and pragmatic models, and (c) what “persons” are in the latter.<o:p></o:p></div>
KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-91360295840555914652013-01-20T14:35:00.001-05:002013-01-20T14:35:29.238-05:00What is a Musical Performance?
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div.WordSection1
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<h1>
Introduction</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So, I’ve just begun to read <a href="http://www.joe-morris.com/" target="_blank">Joe Morris</a>’ <a href="http://www.aumfidelity.com/riti.htm">Perpetual Frontier: The Properties
of Free Music</a>, a summary of which can be found <a href="http://www.pointofdeparture.org/PoD39/PoD39PerpetualFrontier.html">here</a>.
While I’m still in the early stages, it’s got me thinking about how to organize
a group of musicians to play free music, and I’m also seeing how there’s an
underlying philosophy that can be useful in communicating some of Morris’
ideas. If I’m feeling up to it, I’ll provide commentary on Morris, perhaps on a
per chapter basis. However, mostly I want to hash out my own ideas.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Suppose we
begin with a group of musicians, and our objective is to get them to play “free
music.” To make this as concrete as possible, let us suppose that in a month’s
time, they will have to play a concert of “free music.” Moreover, suppose that
all of the musicians in question are well versed in at least one genre of
non-free music, but are relative neophytes in all forms of free music. How
would we get these musicians to succeed in their concert?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It’s
tempting to start devising lots of exercises, a la <a href="http://www.freeimprovisation.com/ImprovBook/improvbook.html">Tom Hall</a>.
I can’t stress how important those exercises are, and how much I’ve loved going
through them. However, how would we know that these exercises have been
effective in producing a successful concert? What we need is a better grasp of
the concept<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">successful free music performance.</i> An exercise would be effective
just in case it promoted <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">that</i>. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
I think that philosophy can help on
this front. In what I hope will be a series of posts, I’ll show how we can get
a clearer concept of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">successful free
music performance</i>. Today, I’ll focus just on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">musical performances</i>, temporarily bracketing the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">success </i>or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">freedom</i> of such performances.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
I suggest that we think of musical
performances as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">systems</i> constituted
by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mechanisms</i>. Let’s first understand
systems and mechanisms more generally (§1),
and then discuss how a musical performance is a special case of systems and
mechanisms (§2).
Third, I’ll consider objections to this view, and offer my replies to them (§3).
Finally, I’ll briefly summarize and highlight the practical payoff of this view
(§4).
</div>
<h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Systems
and mechanisms</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
My goal for today is to show that musical performances can
be regarded as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mechanistic systems</i>. Before
talking about musical performances, let me describe some general features of
mechanistic systems. Philosophers and scientists in the relevant disciplines
have described many biological, psychological, technological, social, and
cultural phenomena as mechanistic systems. While they have different views
about what constitutes a mechanism, the general idea about mechanistic systems is
this: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
(General Idea) Many systems exhibit
certain properties <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">because</i> of the
properties, activities, and organization of the systems’ parts. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For instance, <a href="http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/circulatory/heart-pump-blood1.htm">the
heart pumps blood because of the properties, activities, and organization of
the ventricles and atria</a>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img height="260" id="il_fi" src="http://myeducationalresources.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderpictures/heart_pumping_ha.gif" style="padding-bottom: 8px; padding-right: 8px; padding-top: 8px;" width="260" /> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For now, I’ll
rely on your native intuitions as to what constitutes a part-whole
relationship, property, activity, and organization. However, I do want to spend
a bit more time on a seemingly banal word: the use of “because” in the General
Idea, as mechanistic systems have a special “because”-structure. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his book, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Philosophy/Mind/?view=usa&ci=9780199299317">Explaining
the Brain,</a></i> (which looks at mechanisms in neuroscience), Carl Craver discusses
this “because”-structure, and dubs it the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mutual
Manipulability Condition</i> (MMC). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>That may
sound scary, but the idea is pretty straightforward: in mechanistic systems,
two kinds of changes must be possible:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Changes to the
properties, actions, or organization of the parts must be capable of changing
the properties of the system, and</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Changes to the
properties of the system (or whole) must be capable of changing the properties,
actions, or organization of its parts. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For instance, think about the neuroscience of reading. Here
the system is a person reading and the parts are the relevant parts of the
brain. The MMC states that:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Had the relevant
brain regions been different, then a person’s way of reading would have been
different, and</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Had a person’s way of reading been different,
then the relevant brain regions would have been different.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
An example of the first manipulation or intervention is brain
surgery or the use of certain mind-altering drugs that affect reading. An
example of the second would be altering the speed at which words come across a
screen in order to change how neurons fire. </div>
<h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Musical
performance as a mechanistic system </h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Now, all of this seems pretty far removed from music, right?
Wrong! I'd like to suggest that musical performances are usefully thought of as
mechanistic systems. Recall that the ultimate goal is to specify what is
constitutive of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">successful free music
performance</i>. However, for today, I want to make the argument that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">all </i>musical performances (successful or
otherwise, free or otherwise) are mechanistic systems.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If I’m
going to establish that claim, I need to show that: (§2.1)
a musical performance is a system composed of parts and (§2.2)
the system and parts satisfy the Mutual Manipulability Condition. </div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo6; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Musical performances are systems composed of
parts</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I first want to show that musical performances is an
application of the General Idea. I propose that we simply think of a musical
performance as a system. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Now clearly, such a performance has
many potential properties it can assume. Call these <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">performance properties. </i>Some performance properties are <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">emotive</i>, e.g. performances can be
uplifting, dreadful, banal, intense, soothing, etc. Performances properties can
also be of a more <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">formal</i> variety,
e.g. performances can be in a particular time signature, key, exhibit
particular chord progressions, melodies, harmonies, dynamics, etc. (More on
performance properties at a later date.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Moreover, performances are composed
of parts. I suggest that we take <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">performers</i>
as our primary parts. So a musical performance is a mechanistic system just in
case the following is true:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
A musical performance exhibits
certain properties (e.g. being uplifting, banal intense, etc.) because of the
properties, activities, and organization of the performers.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This seems eminently plausible. Moreover, it’s a good thing
to impress upon our hypothetical musicians with their hypothetical deadline,
for it stresses the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">responsibility</i>
that they have <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">for the musical
performance.</i></div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo6; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Musical performances and performers are mutually
manipulable</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, if I really want to make my case for musical
performances as mechanistic systems, I need to show that musical performances
satisfy the MMC. Now, one requirement of the mutual manipulability condition seems
relatively uncontroversial, namely this:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Had the
performers’ properties, actions, and organization been different, then the
musical performance would have exhibited different properties.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The most obvious evidence for this is that performers play
differently to create different musical pieces. However, the other requirement
of the mutual manipulability condition is trickier:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Had the musical
performance exhibited different properties, then the performers’ properties,
actions, and organization would have been different.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For those who are interested in the puzzle that arises with
(2), go to the <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#Appendix">Appendix</a>. For the rest of you, let me
skip straight to its solution: sometimes, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">one
subset </i>of actions, properties, and/or organization of some performers can
change <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">another</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">subset </i>of such actions, properties, and/or organization <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">only via </i>the performance properties. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
For instance, imagine that all of
the members of a group are playing the same rhythmical motif, until the drummer
suddenly changes her rhythm. The drummer’s rhythmical change is not
self-contained; it also changes the performance’s overall rhythmical
properties. In particular, there will be greater rhythmical complexity than if
all of the performers had continued to play the same motif. This complexity can
then elicit a change in other players: do they maintain the complexity, or do
they alter their rhythm to either enhance or diminish that complexity? In this
way, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">one set </i>of actions, properties,
and organization belonging to the performers can change <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">another</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">subset of </i>actions,
properties, etc. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">only via </i>the
performance properties.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<img height="258" id="il_fi" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh7rw-mOC7IYAI4bHXou1hCth8LZ2MyG6ivd4X4ldXC4uFZArjhTOlcZzzuBdI6jDRHC547Jl_jud2WZERi0pfuWPD_tmUfGkqi6iPao3TtxQiKyVj35iC6htaAu7NR2j7zCxs-96QE4Q/s1600/animal_drums.jpg" style="padding-bottom: 8px; padding-right: 8px; padding-top: 8px;" width="473" /> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It will be
useful to economize our language at this point. We have three crucial elements
in this structure:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 38.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(A)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Interventions: </span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">the
actions, properties, and/or organization that change the performance
properties;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 38.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(B)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Responses: </span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The
actions, properties, and/or organization that are changed via the performance
properties; and</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 38.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(C)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">performance properties</i>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Using these labels we can summarize our view. An event is a
musical performance if and only if it possesses performance properties such
that:</div>
<ol>
<li><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">Interventions are
possible.<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">It is possible
for interventions to affect responses <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">only</i>
via performance properties.</span> <h1 style="margin-left: 20.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Objections, with replies</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"></span></h1>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;">Now, you may not be
convinced. In particular, I will address two potential objections. First,
doesn’t this way of thinking of musical performance rob it of its emotive and
non-analytical qualities (§</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;">3.1</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;">)? Second, what happens with solo performances (§</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;">3.2</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;">)? </span></div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo6; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7664137943824779209" name="_Ref220228013"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7664137943824779209" name="_Ref220228011"></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Isn’t this soulless?</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"></span></span></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">Even
seeing the sentence “Musical performances are mechanistic systems” may offend
the sensibilities of those who think of music in more emotive, non-analytical
terms. I offer four replies. First, the terminology of systems and mechanisms
is something that I inherit from philosophers of science, e.g. </span></span></span><a href="http://philosophy.artsci.wustl.edu/people/Carl_Craver"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">Carl Craver</span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"> and </span></span></span><a href="http://www.pitt.edu/~pkmach/"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">Peter
Machamer</span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">, but very little hangs on this choice of
words. I welcome alternative terminology that is less offensive to the
touchy-feelies of the world </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">J</span></span>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For instance, since biologists frequently
regard organisms as mechanistic systems composed of parts (organs, cells, and
molecules), I could just as easily describe my view as thinking of music as an
“organic whole,” which perhaps sounds less incongruous to those who dislike
talk of mechanistic systems. Second, recall that the ultimate goal is to
clarify the concept of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">successful free
music performance</i>. Whatever the value of thinking emotively and
non-analytically, it is frequently an ineffective tool when clarity is our aim.
Third, it should be recognized that the fact that a system can be explained
mechanistically is entirely compatible with taking emotions and non-discursive
modes of thought as real phenomena. Indeed, the psychology of emotion rests on
exactly this assumption. Finally, let’s first see how the whole approach works,
and then decide if it’s inadequate to the task of clarifying a successful free
music performance.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo6; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228011;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Solo performances</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"></span></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">I have argued that performances are
mechanistic systems only if it’s possible for one subset of performers’
actions, properties, and organization (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">interventions</i>)
to affect another subset of performers’ actions, properties, and organization (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">responses</i>) only via performance-level
properties. At first blush, this would appear to require every performance to
involve <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">at least two</i> performers. “However,”
my critic continues, “that is surely incorrect, as there are <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">solo performances</i>.” Hence, a critic has
a seemingly plausible argument that solo performances are not mechanistic
systems.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>However,
this rests on a confusion of what interventions and responses are. They are,
first and foremost, sets of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">actions,
properties, </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(modes of)
organization</i>. They are not sets of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">performers</i>.
So multiple <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">actions, properties, </i>or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">modes of organization</i> are needed for a
musical performance; multiple <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">performers</i>
are not needed.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">Once this is appreciated, it is clear that
solo performances satisfy our two conditions for a musical performance.
Specifically, an event is a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">solo </i>musical
performance if and only if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">the event
involves only a single performer</i> and a set of performance properties such
that:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 38.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Interventions are
possible.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 38.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Interventions that
affect responses <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">only</i> via performance
properties are possible.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;">As before, condition (1) remains
uncontroversial, as a soloist who played very different things would create
very different performance properties. Given what we’ve said, (2) should seem
unremarkable to anyone who has performed solo. For instance, suppose that our
drummer from before is now a soloist who changes his rhythm mid-performance.
Then clearly he has intervened on the musical properties. There is clearly a
change in the performance’s properties, for its form now includes a rhythm
change. However, the drummer can now respond: after the rhythm change, the
drummer can decide to continue with the new rhythm, return to the previous rhythm,
etc. and presumably this can be in response to the performance’s formal
structure. Hence nothing about solo performances undermines my account of
musical performances.</span></span></div>
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220228013;"></span>
<h1 style="margin-left: 20.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -20.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref220217035;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>The payoff thus far</span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So, why go through all of this? Recall the larger objective.
We begin with a bunch of non-free musicians and are trying to get them produce
a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">successful free music performance</i>.
Thus far, we’ve bracketed success and freedom, and simply tried to articulate
what a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">musical performance</i> is. Our
musicians have thus come to see that a musical performance is a system with a
particular set of properties, namely performance properties that can the
musicians can <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">intervene</i> upon and to
which they can <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">respond</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Now, let me
suggest where I want to go next: different <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">genres
</i>or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kinds </i>of music can be
individuated by the norms that govern their interventions, responses, and
performance properties. Hence, we can start to get a sense of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">free </i>music in virtue of its distinctive
configuration of these three elements.</div>
<h1>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7664137943824779209" name="Appendix"></a>Appendix: Some puzzles about responses</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Above, I noted that the following is a tricky claim to
establish, but didn’t want to belabor people with the details:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Had the musical performance exhibited different
properties, then the performers’ properties, actions, and organization would
have been different.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To see the difficulty with this case, we’ll need to say more
about what we mean by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">manipulability</i>
in MMC. Here is the way that <a href="http://www.hps.pitt.edu/profile/woodward.php">Jim Woodward</a> (roughly)
characterizes the idea:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
An ideal intervention <i>I </i>on <i>X</i>
with respect to <i>Y</i> is a change in the value of <i>X </i>that changes <i>Y</i>,
if at all, <i>only via </i>the change in <i>X</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In our particular case, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">X</i>
is the performance properties, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Y</i> is
the performers’ properties, actions, and organization. So we’re looking for
some ideal intervention <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I </i>such that:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<i>I </i>is a change in the performance’s
properties<i> </i>that changes <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">the
performers’ properties, actions, and organization</span>, if at all, <i>only
via </i>the change in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">the
performance’s properties</span>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Now, the tricky bit is this. If this is going to be
practical advice <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">for performers, </i>then
the ideal intervention, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I</i>,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>should be something that they can <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">do</i>. However, that would mean that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I </i>is a performer’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">action</i>. But that would mean that performances change performers’
actions only via changing performers’ actions, which makes the performance’s
properties totally irrelevant.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
solution to this puzzle emerges from the fact that performances are composed of
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">more than one </i>action, property,
and/or mode of organization. Consequently, one action, property, or mode of
organization can serve as an ideal <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">intervention</i>
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I) </i>on a performance property (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">X</i>), while <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">another </i>such action, property, or mode of organization (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Y</i>) can be a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">response</i> to that performance property. That is the view I presented
above.</div>
KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-53038591229894109992012-04-17T11:49:00.000-04:002012-04-17T11:49:20.023-04:00Understanding and (the neglect of) Fictionalism<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;">So I’m going to go a bit off of the script here, and focus on the paper that I see emerging from these readings. This means talking a bit less about fictionalism, though the class will provide many opportunities to do so.</div><div style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</div></div><h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Elgin vs. Mizrahi</h1><div class="MsoNormal">Last week, we saw Elgin’s argument that understanding entails neither truth nor belief, but merely “true enough” acceptance. To repeat, her master argument was as follows:</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>such that for some propositions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i>:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">x</span></i><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> is acknowledged to be untrue, and</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">x</span></i><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">For all propositions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i>, if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> figures in scientific understanding of some <u>phenomenon, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is epistemically acceptable (120).</u></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">There are some propositions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is acknowledged to be untrue and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is epistemically acceptable.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin provided several examples from scientific practice to support Premise (1). The one of greatest interest for this week is the following:</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, explained by some idealized law L, such that the proposition <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">L</i>:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Is acknowledged to be untrue, and</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</span></u><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Thus</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">,</span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> (1) is true.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Example: Ideal gas laws posit molecular structure and interactions that never obtains. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">As we had already anticipated, there is a reply to this, which Mizrahi (2011) nicely discusses. We never need to acknowledge that the ideal gas law is untrue, for we are only ever committed to “Gas <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">g </i>behaves approximately like an ideal gas under conditions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>” (where <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i> specifies conditions of temperature, pressure, and the like.) Since it is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">true</i> (not merely true <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">enough</i>) that the relevant gases behave <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">approximately</i> like ideal gases, this proposition (rather than the ideal gas law taken straight) need not (indeed, should not) be acknowledged as untrue. Furthermore, once we are dealing with propositions that are acknowledged to be true, the appropriate attitude to adopt is one of belief. Hence, true beliefs are still on firm ground, and understanding is still in the running as a species of knowledge.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Potential theses for a paper…</h1><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span>Mizrahi’s paper is bad news for us—we’ve been scooped! What do we do? Here are some interesting observations from last week’s conversation that make things appear less bleak:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mizrahi only does this with the ideal gas law, we can do the yeoman’s work of covering all of the other kinds of felicitous falsehoods that Elgin catalogues (e.g. stylized facts, curve-smoothing, etc.) By itself this is probably not a terribly exciting contribution to the literature, but not completely idle either.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>We had other strategies available to us. For instance, critiquing premise (2) of Elgin’s Master Argument. This is certainly worth exploring, though there seemed to be some consensus that this would amount to little more than battling over definitions about “epistemic,” “cognitive,” and “pragmatic.”</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>We briefly mentioned another strategy—that of actually <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">granting</i> that felicitous falsehoods could figure in understanding, whilst denying that this precluded understanding from being a species of knowledge. I see two ways of arguing for this strategy.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Semantic strategy.</i> One option is to defend the idea that: If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>is true, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>need not be approximately true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>What would be exciting about this strategy is that it would actually challenge both Elgin and Mizrahi.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pace Elgin, one could have the true belief that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, but this could be a felicitous falsehood.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pace Mizrahi, this would say that understanding need not even be quasi-factive, for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>could be radically false and still provide understanding via its explanatory role.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Turning back to knowledge, the key bit would be the following inference would have defensible premises:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> understands why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, then there is some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i> is true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>is true, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>need not be approximately true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>So if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> understands why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, then there is some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> need not be approximately true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>The key is defending premise 2.c.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level5 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>One option might be the following:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 3.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level6 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; text-indent: -3.0in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>i.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Our concept of explanation already tolerates “true enough” explanantia.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 3.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level6 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; text-indent: -3.0in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>ii.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>True enough propositions that are not explanantia (or at least do not play an explanatory role of some sort) do not figure in our understanding. </div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 3.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level6 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; text-indent: -3.0in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>iii.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hence explanatory propositions (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>) are true (full stop), even if their components (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>) can be true enough.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Epistemological Strategy</i>: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i>Another option is to argue that it is possible that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, even if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> only <u>accepts</u> that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level3 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; text-indent: -1.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>i.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>There is a precursor to this, namely Cohen’s <a href="http://www.lavoisier.fr/livre/notice.asp?id=OR6WS3AK36KOWN"><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An essay on belief and acceptance</span></a></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>I haven’t read this yet.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level3 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; text-indent: -1.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>ii.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>This argument would run as follows:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> understands why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, then there is some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>accepts that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>accepts that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>need not believe that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>So if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> understands why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, then there is some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>need not believe that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Three questions arise: What exactly is the difference between the Semantic and the Epistemological Strategy? Second, which we do adopt? And in either case, how do we defend the respective core claim? </div><h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Semantic vs. Epistemological Strategy<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></h1><div class="MsoNormal">Looking at the relevant foils to these strategies best illustrates<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> the difference between them</i>. One foil is what we might call the “vanilla version” of an account of explanatory knowledge. That view would hold:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>is true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i> is true, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> are true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> believes that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p.</i></div><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin’s reasoning seems to be as follows. She grants the preceding three assumptions, then adds:</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>One can understand without having a true belief that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoNormal">From this, she infers:</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>So understanding is not a species of knowledge.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Let us assume, for simplicity’s sake, that if one understands then one has some sort of attitude about an explanatory proposition <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p. </i>Now, our endgame is to deny (5), but granting that this argument is valid, this means that we must deny one of the premises (1)-(4). The Epistemological Strategy denies (1) and (3), but is squarely committed to (4). By contrast, the Semantic Strategy denies (2), but can remain agnostic, if not tilted towards opposition, about (4). That’s the difference. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Which Strategy?</h1><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>But <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">which strategy should we pursue?</i> There is a temptation to pursue both, but I think this is a mistake that many young researchers make. Since either would be interesting on its own, it would be far better to develop one really solidly, and then save the other for your next project. This is partly strategic: that’s two lines on your vita rather than one! But it’s also good for generating the best paper possible: given finite resources, it’s better to have one well developed position rather than two worse developed positions.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>OK, so which one? Well, part of this is just wherever your gut takes you—where do you see the stronger argument? With which literature are you more comfortable? But that’s not the whole story. There is also a question about the logical interrelations between (1)-(4). Specifically, Elgin’s critique of the vanilla version shares many assumptions with its target—namely (1)-(3)—but Elgin clearly privileges (2):</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>There are understanding-providing explanations of the form <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i> where either <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> is false.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(7)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>By (2) and (6), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>is false.</u></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(8)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>By<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(1) and (7), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> does not know that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(9)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>is false, then the appropriate attitude to it when it provides understanding is not belief.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(10)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>By (7) and (9), the appropriate attitude to understanding-providing <u>explanations is not belief.</u></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(11)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>So by (3) and (10), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> does not know that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">So, (2) and (6) are the most basic premises in Elgin’s argument. Note that rebutting (6) is just to retrace Mizrahi’s steps, so rebutting (2) is really the way to shed new light on this conversation. This means that we should pursue the Semantic Strategy. </div><h1 style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>How to defend the Semantic Strategy?</h1><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What’s cool about this is that we can answer the last of our three questions. We can use Elgin’s same arguments to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">defend</i> our challenge to (2)—but draw a very different and indeed more modest conclusion. On this view, we agree with her that false propositions figure in explanations (and other chunks of discourse/bodies of information), but this does not preclude understanding from being a species of knowledge. Thus, we can know that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>even if we don’t know that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> (because, e.g. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>is false). </div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Next, we need to motivate this position. Here is at least one suggestive strategy: what if antirealism is correct? Then understanding is surely not factive. Hence if Elgin is right, it would seem that antirealism precludes understanding from being a species of knowledge (Elgin actually makes this argument elsewhere). Moreover, everything Mizrahi says indicates that he agrees with Elgin on this point. So, if it is possible to be an antirealist and maintain that understanding is a species of knowledge, then both Elgin and Mizrahi are incorrect. It is possible to be an antirealist and maintain that understanding is a species of knowledge (namely in those possible worlds where the Semantic Strategy succeeds). So both Elgin and Mizrahi are incorrect.<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></b>So, there’s an outline of a paper somewhere in this. It goes something like this:</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">What is the thesis? </b>Because true explanations can have false explanantia, understanding can be a species of knowledge.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">What is the argument?</b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">I.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If Elgin’s argument is sound, then understanding is not a species of knowledge.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">II.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Elgin’s argument is not sound.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Defend the idea that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>does not entail <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">III.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If Mizrahi’s argument is sound, then understanding is a species of knowledge.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">IV.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mizrahi’s argument is not sound.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Defend the idea that antirealists are not opposed to understanding.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">V.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Present a sound argument that understanding is a species of knowledge.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> understands why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, then there is some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i> is true.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p </i>is true, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q </i>need not be approximately true.</u></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>So if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> understands why <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, then there is some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>knows that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q explains p</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q</i> need not be approximately true.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in;"><br />
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</div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-64721603786568502902012-04-09T15:47:00.000-04:002012-04-09T15:47:03.836-04:00Understanding and Truth<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal">Let’s take stock of where we are. We’ve seen that if Inference to the Best Explanation is to be defensible, then there must be some link between loveliness and likeliness. In other words, we infer that explanation that, if true, would provide the greatest understanding. Furthermore, we’ve argued that understanding might be a species of explanatory knowledge. In this case, we infer the potential explanation that, if true, would provide the greatest explanatory knowledge. Given what we know about knowledge, this means that IBE amounts to the following:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">All else being equal, an explanation provides the greatest understanding if and only if it:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Provides the greatest number of true beliefs about explanations;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Provides the best justification for these beliefs; and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Renders these beliefs as luck-free or ‘safe’ as possible.</div><div class="MsoNormal">(A passing observation: There will be circumstances where these three conditions pull us in opposite directions. In this case, IBE will not provide clear counsel, or we will need some way to rank conditions (1)-(3)’s inferential importance.)</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>We’ve already had a go at condition (3), when we discussed Morris vs. Grimm. This week, we’ll look at (1). After giving a brief gloss on Khalifa vs. Lipton, I’ll devote a chunk of this to Elgin’s paper. We can discuss further details about how Lipton and I disagree in class.</div><h1 style="margin-left: 40.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -22.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lipton vs. Khalifa</h1><div class="MsoNormal">Inferentially speaking, the first of these conditions is most important, since an inference is typically assessed by how well the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">truth </i>of the premises secures the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">truth</i> of the conclusion. However, this is also the most contentious claim in this week’s readings. Moreover, challenging the role of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">truth</i> in understanding forces a corresponding adjustment in the role of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">belief</i>, for to believe that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>entails taking <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">true</i>. While Lipton finds nothing problematic with these points, Elgin and I demur. I’ll quickly go through my schtick vs. Lipton.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">One challenge to the idea that understanding entails true beliefs is that we have no means of making sure that a true explanation is to be found among the potential explanations that we’re considering. This is called the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">underconsideration </i>or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bad lot </i>argument. Historically, this gets lots of purchase from the fact that many of current best explanations (coming from relativity, quantum, evolution, plate tectonics, etc.) were not considered for long stretches in the history of science.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">Lipton tries to dispel this worry on more or less <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a priori </i>grounds, by setting certain kinds of ground rules, e.g. the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ranking Premise, </i>the claim that scientists reliably rank explanations. He attempts to show that this cannot be held consistently with the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">No Privilege </i>assumption, which holds that no true explanation is to be found in the ranks of considered explanations. As I show, Lipton’s argument fails to account for the non-monotonicity of inductive inference. Non-monotonicity is the idea that the goodness of an inference is affected by the addition of new information, such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A </i>is a good reason to believe <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B</i>, but <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A & E</i> is not a good reason to believe <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A & E & F</i> is a good reason to believe <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B</i>, etc.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">Realists also are fond of invoking background theories to make their case. Roughly, the idea is that some aspect of explanatory reasoning would be very unlikely if the background theories used in such reasoning were radically false. As I argue, these appeals generally don’t live up to their billing, in large part because something less than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">true </i>background theories could do the trick.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">Since we understand a good deal, I don’t think that the first condition is necessary for understanding: a good explanation might not provide very many true beliefs about explanations. Note that this denial can be heard in at least three ways:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 56.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -20.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(A)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A good explanation can provide very <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">few</i> true beliefs about explanations;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 56.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -20.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(B)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A good explanation can provide many <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">untrue</i> beliefs about explanations;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 56.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -20.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(C)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A good explanation can provide many true <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non-beliefs </i>about explanations.</div><div class="MsoNormal">These can—but need not—intersect. My paper says nothing about the quantity of explanations a good explanation provides, though since I think explanatory virtues/considerations can be justificatory, and consilience is a virtue, let’s drop (A) from further consideration: a good explanation has to explain a lot.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>That leaves us with (B) and (C). Furthermore, I’ve put them in negative terms, but of course they also admit of positive glosses. Specifically, I had in mind the following:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -.5in;">(B<sub>K</sub>) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A good explanation can <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">entitle </i>people to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beliefs </i>about explanations.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Essentially, this says that we should give up on the truth that good explanations provide, and focus on the justification. (I do make some concessions to veriphiles, but the kind of concessions that aren’t likely to make them very happy.)</div><h2>Questions</h2><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Adopt the position of Lipton, and read my paper. Am I uncharitable to him at any juncture?</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Even if my criticisms are right, my antirealist proposal may be wrong. Give me hell.</div><h1 style="margin-left: 40.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -22.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Elgin’s “True Enough” (2004)</h1><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin provides a distinct set of challenges to the idea that understanding provides true explanatory beliefs. (She doesn’t say too much about explanations, so let’s bracket that issue for now.) The next few weeks or so, we’ll be focusing quite a bit on her work, as she provides a really interesting challenge to my view. Roughly, Elgin argues that understanding is not factive (i.e. doesn’t entail truth). Since knowledge <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">is </i>factive, this would appear to imply that understanding is not a species of knowledge. Bad news for my view, right?</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ll explain why I’m not worried (yet) by Elgin’s challenge, perhaps in class. First, I want you to see how I go about readying myself for addressing work with which I aim to disagree. The first crucial step is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">getting the person’s arguments down.</i> So that’s where I’m starting:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
</div><h2>Elgin’s Main Argument:</h2><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>such that for some propositions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i>:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is acknowledged to be untrue, and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>For all propositions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i>, if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> figures in scientific understanding of some<u> phenomenon, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is epistemically acceptable (120).</u></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>There are some propositions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> such that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is acknowledged to be untrue and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> is epistemically acceptable.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">(NB: The aim is to always reconstruct the author’s argument so as to make it valid. This is an important principle of charity, and also frees you up to focus on the veracity of the premises.)</div><h2>Arguments for Premise (1)</h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A. Curve-Smoothing</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">(CS) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, represented by a smooth curve <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>, such that the proposition <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">all of the data points lie on C</i>: </div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Is acknowledged to be untrue, and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>Figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Thus, </span></span>(1) is true.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Argument for (CS.b.ii):</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">In the relevant examples, consider an extremely jagged curve <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C*</i> such that all of the data points lie on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C*</i>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">Because <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C*</i> is jagged, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i> is not an intelligible pattern.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">But if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i> is not an intelligible pattern, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> is not understood scientifically.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. Ceteris Paribus</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">(CP) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, explained by some law of the form <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">All else being equal, all Fs are Gs</i>, such that the proposition <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">all else is equal</i>:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Is acknowledged to be untrue, and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>Figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Thus,</span></span> (1) is true.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C. Idealizations</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">(I)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, explained by some idealized law L, such that the proposition <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">L</i>:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Is acknowledged to be untrue, and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>Figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Thus,</span></span> (1) is true.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Example: Ideal gas laws posit molecular structure and interactions that never obtains. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D. Stylized Facts</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">(SF) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, such that the proposition representing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Is acknowledged to be untrue, and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>Figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Thus, </span></span>(1) is true.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Example: Economic models aim to explain why profit rates are constant, though profit rates are not constant.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">E. A fortiori arguments from limiting cases</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">(AF) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There are some phenomena <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>, explained on analogy with a limiting case <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>, such that the proposition is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p is identical to C</i>:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Is acknowledged to be untrue, and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>Figures in scientific understanding of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>.</u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Thus, </span></span>(1) is true.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><h2>Elaboration of Premise (2)</h2><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin doesn’t really argue for (2). Instead, she provides a plausible just-so story about how epistemic acceptance could diverge from belief:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>To cognitively accept that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> is to take it that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p’s </i>divergence from truth, if any, does not matter cognitively.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><u>If something<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>figures in an understanding of how things are, then it matters </u><u>cognitively.</u></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>To cognitively accept that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> is to take it that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p’s </i>divergence from truth, if any, does not figure in an understanding of how things are, i.e. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>is “true enough.” [See 120]</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin continues this elaboration (A), and then rebuts a potential objection (B).</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A. Under what conditions does divergence from the truth cognitively matter?</i></div><div class="MsoNormal">Let <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>be a candidate for acceptability. Acceptable propositions “belong to and perform function in [i.e. figure in] larger bodies of discourse, such as arguments, explanations, or theories that have purposes.” (121) Whether or not <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>is true enough depends on several contextual factors:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -.75in;">(Context) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The larger body of discourse <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D</i> to which <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>belongs. For example, other elements in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D</i>, such as background assumptions, affect <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p’s </i>acceptability.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -.75in;">(Purpose) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>is true enough for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D’s</i> purpose, i.e. true enough to serve certain <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D’s</i> ends.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -.75in;">(Function) If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> performs no role in achieving <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D’s </i>purpose, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>is not true enough.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. Veritistic Alternative, with Reply </i></div><div class="MsoNormal">Those who hold that inquiry is always truth-driven (veritists), might well argue that the function of all acceptable propositions is to approximate the truth.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elgin’s critiques of this proposal: </i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">(1) Not all approximations perform the same function (122). Some approximations are less accurate, but better “serve as evidence or constraints on future theorizing” than their more accurate counterparts, e.g. a first-order approximation that admits of an analytical solution vs. a second-order equation that does not. In this case, “A felicitous falsehood thus is not always accepted only in default of the truth. Nor is its acceptance always ‘second best.’ It may make cognitive contributions that the unvarnished truth cannot match.” (122)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">(2) Not all felicitous falsehoods are approximations. The value of an idealization is not always directly proportional to its approximating the truth.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><br />
</div><h2>Fictions</h2><div class="MsoNormal">If you're still on Elgin's bandwagon at this point, she's still elaborating her very interesting picture of understanding. In particular, how is it that an acceptable proposition can be false (strictly speaking) yet provide understanding that is somehow constrained by the facts? Elgin suggests that acceptable propositions (what she sometimes calls "felicitous falsehoods") are better construed as fictions than as mistaken or inaccurate statements of fact. Elgin then elaborates that fictions shed light on reality through a cognitive process called <i>exemplification </i>(A), and rebuts an objection to this proposal.</div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A. Exemplification</i></div><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin argues that various proposals by Lewis, Walton, Yablo, and Kitcher about fictions all fail because they cannot tell us why something fictitious can shed light on how we understand real things.</div><div class="MsoNormal">She offers <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">exemplification </i>as a more promising alternative.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"><br />
</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i></div><div class="MsoNormal"><i>1. A simple example of exemplification:</i><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Paint samples exemplify the colors of different paints.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"><i>2. Why a</i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cceptable propositions are just like paint samples</i>: Just as “something other than paint can serve as a paint sample, affording epistemic access to a color also instantiated by the paint,” so “something other than [e.g.] a molecule exemplify molecular structure, thereby affording epistemic access to a structure also instantiated by the molecule. A felicitous falsehood then is a fiction that exemplifies a feature in a context where the exemplification of that feature contributes to understanding…They qualify as fictions because they diverge from the phenomena in unexemplified properties.” (126) <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. Possible Objection: Exemplifying Fictions are simply a way station to the truth</i></div><div class="MsoNormal">We often begin with a highly idealized model, and then make corrections to get <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">closer to the truth. </i>Hence, it’s the corrections, rather than the fictions that they correct, which are more epistemically valuable. As before, this would play into the veritist's hands.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin offers three replies to this objection:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 56.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; text-indent: -20.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Some corrections are unnecessary or unproductive. A fortiori arguments from limiting cases are one such example.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 56.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; text-indent: -20.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>In practice, corrections are not always aimed at truth, but only at more refined models. “They replace one falsehood with another.”</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 56.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; text-indent: -20.0pt;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Even where corrections yield truths, fictions can “structure our understanding in a way that makes available information we would not otherwise have access to.”</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C. Possible Objection: Replacing Truth with Truth-Enough Leads to Intractable Relativism</i></div><div class="MsoNormal">There is a still another objection to Elgin's view. Suppose that a theory attesting to the healing powers of crystals is offered, and the inquirer in question aims to sell more healing crystals. Won’t the claim that some crystals heal be true enough?</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Elgin’s Reply: “A theory can claim to make sense of a range of facts only if it is factually defeasible—only if, that is, there is some reasonably determinate, epistemically accessible factual arrangement which, if it were found to obtain, would discredit the theory.” (129)</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Furthermore, “an acceptable theory must be at least as good as any available alternative, when judged in terms of currently available standards of cognitive goodness.” (129)</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">This helps to pinpoint truth’s role in understanding: “A factually defeasible theory has epistemically accessible implications which, if found to be false, discredit the theory. So a defeasible theory, by preserving a commitment to testable consequences retains a commitment to truth.” Such a view is still compatible with there being other propositions in the theory which are acknowledged to be false.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><h3>Questions</h3><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Look at Elgin’s various arguments (the Main Argument, the Arguments for Premise (1), and the Argument for Premise (2)). What strikes you as a dubious piece of reasoning? Why? Can you provide an argument to that effect?</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-68777199478557085072012-04-04T09:31:00.000-04:002012-04-04T09:31:39.071-04:00Understanding and ExplanationThus far, we've been considering the idea that understanding is a species of explanatory knowledge. Last class, we examined the idea that understanding might not be knowledge; in this class, we'll examine whether understanding always has to be explanatory in nature. My view is that explanatory knowledge is the ideal mode of understanding. de Regt's essay challenges the sufficiency of this view, arguing that an extra dimension of skill/insight must be added to explanatory knowledge in order to achieve understanding. Lipton's essay challenges the necessity of explanations for understanding. I've offered arguments as to why I think that both are mistaken. What do you think?KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-10974684355317257092012-03-19T21:30:00.000-04:002012-03-19T21:30:25.916-04:00UnderstandingThus far, we've explored the idea that explanations guide us to the truth. To the extent that we've entertained challenges to that view, it's the explanatory skeptic's claim that explanations lack any uniform properties that could reliably underwrite inferences. However, the explanationist has three ways of sidestepping that worry.<br />
<br />
The first is a direct attack on skepticism, as Nickel does. Similarly, even if Nickel's arguments don't work, an explanationist can start to look at more concrete skeptical views--such as my accountabilist and expressivist ideas--and find faults with them. Second, even if explanationists concede a good deal to explanatory skepticism, they can pick out a class of explanations that do underwrite inferences. Here, Lipton hones in on the most plausible candidate: causal explanation. Yet a third explanationist tactic is to claim that it is not the concept of <i>explanation </i>that underwrites Inference to the Best Explanation, but rather the notion of <i>the best</i> that guides us to truth. This invariably leads to the question, "What makes one explanation better than another?" Lipton's answer is "Loveliness," or that which provides the greatest potential <b><u>understanding</u></b>.<br />
<br />
Lipton has already told us a bit about understanding--specifically it is <i>knowledge of an explanation.</i> (Recall his claim on p. 30: "Understanding is not some sort of super-knowledge, but simply more knowledge: knowledge of causes." Following Lipton's move in this week's chapter, we'll abstract the causal bit.) This would suggest that the best explanation is the one that would provide the greatest potential explanatory knowledge. Here "greatest" might mean "most," suggesting that we infer the explanation that would allow us: (a) to know more about it than its rivals, and (b) to know more explanations than would its rivals. However, "greatest" might also mean "best," in which case we need to have some way of judging what makes one body of explanatory knowledge better than another. Undoubtedly, (a) and (b) figure in such judgments, but others include theoretical virtues such as simplicity, conservatism, analogy, and consilience. (Arguably, consilience is exhausted by (a) and (b).)<br />
<br />
However, this all presupposes that understanding is a species of knowledge, which brings us to squarely back to the crash course in epistemology from Week 1 (Scott Sturgeon's article). Recall the Gettier problem: one may have justified true belief, yet if one's belief easily could have been false, then a person does not know what she believes. For instance, suppose that I see an animal with white fluffy fur at Duclos Sheep Farm down the road from the College. Since I have seen sheep there quite regularly, I believe that there is a sheep in the field. Hence, my belief is justified. However, unbeknownst to me, I am seeing a shaggy dog who is perfectly occluding my view of a sheep. So although my belief is justified and true, it appears that I do not know. That is a Gettier case.<br />
<br />
Some, most notably Jonathan Kvanvig, have argued that understanding is <i>not </i>a species of knowledge precisely because it is unaffected by "Gettier Luck." Kvanvig's case runs as follows: suppose that you pick up a library book at random on Comanche history. You read the book diligently, grasping how various explanations make sense of a large and well-studied body of evidence. When asked about Comanche history, you fire back a bevy of true answers. Wouldn't you say that you understand a good deal about Comanche history, including particular events in that history, e.g. why they dominated the Southern plains? Now, Kvanvig adds, suppose that the book you pulled from the library happened to be the only one on the shelf that had accurate information about Comanche history. Had you grabbed any other book on the Comanche, your beliefs would have been false. So, just like the sheep example, you don't know, because your belief could have easily been false. Yet your understanding seems unblemished by this fact.<br />
<br />
(The analogy is sheep:shaggy dog::good Comanche book:shoddy Comanche book.)<br />
<br />
Grimm critiques, and Morris defends, Kvanvig's stance on lucky understanding. [Where do you stand? Why?] Obviously, Grimm's view is more in line with Lipton's, but it is an interesting (and relatively unexplored) question as to how the possibility of lucky understanding affects IBE. Minimally, it would appear to lower the standards on what counts as the best explanation, as one would not need evidence that one's belief in the explanation could have easily been false. However, this presumably increases the riskiness of using IBE as a rule of inference. So if there are reasons for thinking that understanding is compatible with luck antecedent of any considerations of IBE, then perhaps the proper lesson is that IBE is not a reliable rule of inference.<br />
<br />
<b>Update on my Expressivism Paper</b><br />
Our conversations from last week have prompted me to take a step back, and ask a more elementary question, "What is a pragmatic theory of explanation?" I'm also looking at the kind of argument that could provide good reasons to favor such a theory. It's turning out to be a fascinating exercise. I'll share once I'm further along. <b> </b>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-16539685455067514752012-03-12T17:07:00.000-04:002012-03-12T17:07:30.199-04:00An Expressivist Theory of Explanation?<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal">So you’re now in a position to see the first of the papers that I’ll be working on this semester. This paper aims to take my “Contrastive Explanations as Social Accounts” and turn a rather clumsily formulated social epistemology of explanation into an <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">expressivist </i>theory of explanation. I’ll go through this in four stages. First, I’ll give you expressivism in a nutshell. Second, I’ll give you the three core ideas from my “accountabilist” approach to explanation. Third, I’ll briefly sketch how to convert these into an expressivist account, and fourth, what benefits it holds.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Before proceeding, let me add that all of these thoughts are brand spankin' new. I literally began piecing together these ideas Sunday afternoon, and have had a steady diet of interruptions throughout their formulation. What I really want from you is a full battery of questions about this. I also want you to switch hats, from being altogether critical of this idea to really trying to inhabit and see it to its proper development. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">For all I know, this is a hair-brained idea! This is actually a good thing to learn about the writing process. For every published paper that I have, there are tens of thousands of words that I throw to the flames. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">1. Expressivism in a nutshell</i>. Traditionally, accounts of explanatory claims are committed to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">descriptivist</i> semantics. In other words, explanatory claims were taken to describe real relations between explanantia and explananda, and assertions thus express <i>cognitive mental states</i>. <span style="font-family: AdvTimes; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvTimes;">Cognitive mental states, paradigmatically beliefs, purport to represent the world in a particular way. </span>By contrast, expressivism claims that explanatory claims express a kind of mental state, and more specifically a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non-cognitive </i>state. <span style="font-family: AdvTimes; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvTimes;">Unlike cognitive states, non-cognitive mental states (e.g. intentions) purport to make the world become one way or another, and figure first and foremost in our actions.</span><span style="font-family: AdvTimes; font-size: 8.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvTimes;"> </span><span style="font-family: AdvTimes; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvTimes;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">Different expressivists deploy different kinds of non-cognitive mental states.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gibbard <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_12" title="Gibbard, 1990 #1258"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">1990</span></a>)</span>, the foremost expressivist in metaethics, favors a <i>complex</i> (i.e. a combo of both cognitive and non-cognitive) mental state of ‘‘norm-acceptance’’. Concerning attributions of rationality, Gibbard <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_11" title="Gibbard, 1986 #1673"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">1986, 479</span></a>)</span> writes, </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">Thinking X rational…is a combination of a normative state and a state of factual belief. It is accepting a system N of norms such that one believes the subject to be in circumstances for which N permits X.</div><div class="MsoNormal">On Gibbard’s expressivism, the mental state expressed by claims of the form “X is rational” is complex, involving both a factual belief—that the subject is in circumstances for which N permits X—and a non-cognitive state—the acceptance <span style="font-family: AdvTimes; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvTimes;">of the system of norms N.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">2. Contrastive Explanations as Social Accounts</i>. I’ll discuss the core ideas from this older paper, offering critical commentary along the way:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>An audience <i>A </i>demands from a person <i>S </i>an explanation of <i>p rather than q </i>if and only if:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>A </i>undertakes commitment to the topic <i>p</i>;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>A </i>undertakes commitment to not-<i>q</i>;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>A </i>takes <i>S </i>as committed but not entitled to <i>p and not-q</i>; and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Given the uncontroversial commitments <i>u </i>that entitle one to <i>p</i>, a member of <i>A</i>’s epistemic community would be committed to <i>q </i>if she were committed to a controversial claim <i>c</i>.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Problem: controversy is not necessary for explanation. Example: it’s unclear why controversy is necessary for explaining “Why is the sky blue rather than green?” Would anybody be committed to the sky being green under any controversial commitments of which we can conceive? Minimally it appears ad hoc to insist on this.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>purports to explain <i>p rather than q </i>with <i>h </i>relative to controversial commitments <i>c </i>and uncontroversial commitments <i>u </i>if and only if:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>undertakes a commitment to <i>h</i>, <i>p</i>, and <i>not-q; </i>and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>takes <i>h </i>to entitle the strongest variant of <i>p</i>, <i>not-q</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>u </i>to which <i>S </i>is committed.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">Here, the strongest variant of a set of propositions will be the largest subset of those propositions closed under deduction.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>S <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">correctly </i>explains <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p rather than q </i>with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">h</i> if:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>is entitled to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">h</i>; and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">h</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">actually</i> entitles the strongest variant of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p, not-q, c, </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">u</i> to which <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> is committed.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Problem: not clear how to articulate “actual entitlement.” I offered three different stories (dialectical, intersubjective, and objective), but find none to be satisfying.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">***I WOULD BE VERY INTERESTED IN HEARING THE OTHER WAYS IN WHICH YOU FIND THIS PAPER'S IDEAS UNSATISFACTORY. AFTER ALL, THE AIM IS TO IMPROVE ON IT!***</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">3. From accountabilism to expressivism</i>. I suggest the following expressivist amendments to my accountabilist view.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>An audience <i>A </i>demands from a person <i>S </i>an explanation of <i>p rather than q </i>if and only if:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A </i>believes <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A </i>believes <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not-q;</i></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A</i> accepts epistemic norms N;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A </i>believes that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> is in circumstances <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>According to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N</i>, if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>is in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>, then</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>is committed but not entitled to believe that <i>p and not-q</i>; and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> is</span> entitled to believe that <i>p</i>.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">There exist</span> an alternative set of epistemic norms N* such that according to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N*</i>,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> is in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> would be entitled to believe that <i>q</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">.<i> </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal">Note that there is no longer any reference to controversy or commitments, so the problems with the first formulation have evaporated. However, we will need to index all explanations to a system of norms N, a rival system of norms N*, and a set of circumstances C.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Next, let’s look at purported explanation.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>purports to explain <i>p rather than q </i>with <i>h</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> (relative to N, N*, and C)<i> </i></span>if and only if:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>believes that <i>h</i>, <i>p</i>, and <i>not-q; </i></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>believes that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> is in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i>+, where <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C+</i> is the strongest variant of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C</i> that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> believes;</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>S </i>accepts a system of norms <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N+</i>, where <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N+</i> is the most comprehensive intersection of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N* </i>that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> accepts; and</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>According to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N+</i>, </div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>is in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C+, </i>then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S </i>is entitled to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">h</i></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> is in circumstances <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C+</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">h</i>, then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> is entitled to believe that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p and</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not-q</i>.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Now we get to the kicker: correct explanation is just purported explanation with the additional caveat that all of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S’s </i>beliefs are true. (Here I’ll bracket issues of realism about explanantia.) But observe what this means: take any four claims that could stand for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p, not-q, h, </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C+</i>. There are no further true beliefs about whether these things could stand in a “correct” explanatory relationship; only norms that different people accept that then dictate these explanatory relationships. (Which isn’t to say that everything explains everything; such a reckless dictum is curtailed on this account largely by C+ and by any contingent overlap in our epistemic norms.)</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">**DO I LOSE ANYTHING IN THIS TRANSFORMATION?**</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">4. Implications of this view</i>. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A. Dialectical Intuitions. </i>This is all very speculative, but I think the main upshot of this view is that it inherits Chrisman’s (epistemic) expressivist solution to what he calls the “dialectical intuitions problem.” As he writes: </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: AdvTimes; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvTimes;">…by maintaining that knowledge claims express states of norm-acceptance rather than relativized factual beliefs, the epistemic expressivist …gains a second axis of possible opposition or agreement. That is, he can account for the intuition of cross-context opposition and agreement by claiming that the speakers are expressing pragmatically opposed or concurring states of norm acceptance, rather logically contradictory or identical descriptive beliefs (244).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal">In other words, there are still debates to be had about whether something is explanatory or not, but the debates might be factual (if they deal with the beliefs in question) and/or they might be pragmatic (if they only deal with how the contents of these beliefs are “explanatorily relevant” to one another).</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B</i>. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Explanatory Skepticism. </i>This gives us a new and strong version of what Nickel called explanatory skepticism. What counts as a suitable explanatory contrast, as well as what counts as satisfying a relevance relation with respect to such a contrast, is not determined by substantive semantic constraints (at least if semantics must be descriptivist), but must now involve pragmatic considerations about the epistemic norms that we accept. Its major upshot is that it provides a more precise account of how context affects explanatory claims. The specific contextual mechanisms involve the norms that the explainer and her audience accept.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">Note that we need to distinguish explanatory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">skepticism</i> from explanatory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pluralism</i>. If it turns out that everybody accepts the same norms when explaining, then although the view will still be skeptical (because the major constraints on explanations will be non-semantic and hence non-substantive), but it will not be pluralist. There will only be one way of explaining things: whichever way the preferred set of epistemic norms dictates.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">However, we also have further reason to think that the relevant norms exhibit a good deal of variation. Lipton already countenances geometrical and non-contrastive explanations in addition to his preferred causal model. Furthermore, “Contrastive Explanations as Social Accounts,” particularly its appendices, also provides independent support for explanatory pluralism. There are lots of different kinds of explanations <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">within </i>science (since then I’ve found even more!), so we can only imagine that adding math and ethics into the mix will make explanation all the more motley.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C. IBE</i>. As a skeptical view, explanatory expressivism is not terribly congenial to IBE. In particular, it’s rather odd that a canon of inference would counsel not only the adoption of beliefs but also the acceptance of norms. Alternatively, it may point to the fact that IBE only makes sense if you accept certain epistemic norms. The question then becomes what norms they might be, and what non-acceptance of these norms entails. Consequently, in being entitled to the explanans—the signature inferential benefit of IBE—we may find ourselves entitled to far less than belief in the explanans’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">truth</i>, since a more modest set of norms would provide entitlement to something which falls short of truth, e.g. empirical adequacy.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">As I said, this is all very speculative and new. But the exciting bit is that we get to think about these ideas together and try and hammer them out. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-43015190154399493822012-03-05T13:42:00.000-05:002012-03-05T13:42:47.554-05:00Week: Meta-Theories of Explanation<style>
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</style> <h2><span style="font-family: Garamond; font-size: 12.0pt;">Weeks 4 and 5 (and beyond!): What is an explanation? </span></h2><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;">If we’re going to be able to assess IBE’s reliability as a pattern of inference, then we better be able to answer the question, “What is an explanation?” This is more or less a reprise of our earlier question, “What are the dominant views about explanation in the literature?” We’ll approach this in two stages. First, we’ll approach the more abstract question about what we should expect from our theories of explanation (this is a kind of “meta-theory of explanation”). Then, we’ll look at specific theories of explanation.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 10.0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan lines-together; page-break-after: avoid;"><b><span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Garamond; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1;">Week 4: Meta-Theories of Explanation</span></b><b><span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-themecolor: accent1;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">We’ll begin by looking at Lipton’s quick review of the explanation literature, in Chapter 2 of his book. (I stress that this is a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">very</i> broad review; the <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-explanation/">literature</a> gets more detailed very quickly.) Here, Lipton shows that several models of explanation (reason, familiarity, deductive-nomological, unification, and necessity) fail to satisfy several important criteria of adequacy: the why-regress, distinguishing evidence from explanation, asymmetries (i.e. that A explains B typically entails that B does not explain A), etc.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">I’ll pair this with two readings that take opposing views about what we should be expecting from a theory of explanation. Nickel <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_6" title="Nickel, 2010 #1480"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2010</span></a><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">)</span> argues against <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">explanatory skepticism</i>. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Explanatory skeptics deny the existence of any distinctively explanatory information within or across domains. In other words, skeptics hold that whether A explains B depends<span style="color: #131413;"> </span>on the background beliefs, commitments, practical interests, etc. of the person who is inquiring about A or B. By contrast, anti-skeptics claim that whether A explains B depends on certain features common to all explanations, regardless of inquirers' background beliefs, commitments, and interests. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">While Nickel rejects explanatory skepticism, my collaborators and I show that his arguments are inadequate <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(</span><a href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/4250073u24u68514/" title="Díez, #1612"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Díez,Khalifa, and Leuridan forthcoming</span></a><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">)</span>. While this does not show that explanatory skepticism is correct, it shows that it is defensible. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">And what follows if explanatory skepticism is defensible? Nickel (p. 308) does a nice job discussing three implications of this view: (1) "the special status of understanding is a chimera"; (2) "IBE is undermined," and (3) reduction's status as a "metaphysically important relation" is put into question. Let's also add that Lipton's quick dismissal of the five aforementioned models of explanation becomes far too quick. The skeptic can argue that the criteria of adequacy he uses to knock out these five models at best show that these models aren't universal templates of explanation, but then again, the skeptic will also claim that no such templates exist. Consequently, we are free to adopt the reason model in one context, the familiarity in another, etc., and worries about their susceptibility to why-regresses, asymmetries and the like are also constrained by context-specific interests, background beliefs, etc. Now, it may be the case that these worries crop up more frequently when deploying these kinds of explanations than, e.g. causal explanations, but the skeptic argues that this is simply a contingent fact emerging from most people's attitudes towards explanations, but is not thereby written into the "nature" of explanation. </span></div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-57992659316643944482012-03-05T13:33:00.000-05:002012-03-05T13:33:44.969-05:00Week 4: "Meta-Theories" of Explanation<style>
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<h2><span style="font-family: Garamond; font-size: 12.0pt;">Weeks 4 and 5 (and beyond!): What is an explanation? </span></h2><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;">If we’re going to be able to assess IBE’s reliability as a pattern of inference, then we better be able to answer the question, “What is an explanation?” This is more or less a reprise of our earlier question, “What are the dominant views about explanation in the literature?” We’ll approach this in two stages. First, we’ll approach the more abstract question about what we should expect from our theories of explanation (this is a kind of “meta-theory of explanation”). Then, we’ll look at specific theories of explanation.</span></div><style>
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</style> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">We’ll begin by looking at Lipton’s quick review of the explanation literature, in Chapter 2 of his book. (I stress that this is a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">very</i> broad review; the <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-explanation/">literature</a> gets more detailed very quickly.) Here, Lipton shows that several models of explanation (reason, familiarity, deductive-nomological, unification, and necessity) fail to satisfy several important criteria of adequacy: the why-regress, distinguishing evidence from explanation, asymmetries (i.e. that A explains B typically entails that B does not explain A), etc.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond;">I’ll pair this with two readings that take opposing views about what we should be expecting from a theory of explanation. Nickel <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_6" title="Nickel, 2010 #1480"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2010</span></a><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">)</span> argues against <i>explanatory skepticism.</i> Explanatory skeptics deny the existence of<span style="color: #131413;"> any distinctively explanatory information within or across domains. In other words, explanatory skeptics hold that whether A explains B depends mostly </span>on the background beliefs, commitments, practical interests, etc. of the person who is inquiring about A or B. By contrast, anti-skeptics claim that whether A explains B depends on certain features common to all explanations, regardless of inquirers' background beliefs, commitments, and interests. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">While Nickel rejects explanatory skepticism, my collaborators and I show that his arguments are inadequate <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(</span><a href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/4250073u24u68514/" title="Díez, #1612"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Díez,Khalifa, and Leuridan forthcoming</span></a><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">)</span>. While this does not show that explanatory skepticism is correct, it shows that it is defensible. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">And what follows if explanatory skepticism is defensible? Nickel (p. 308) does a nice job discussing three implications of this view: (1) "the special status of understanding is a chimera"; (2) "IBE is undermined," and (3) reduction's status as a "metaphysically important relation" is put into question. Let's also add that Lipton's quick dismissal of the five aforementioned models of explanation becomes far too quick. The skeptic can argue that the criteria of adequacy he uses to knock out these five models at best show that these models aren't universal templates of explanation, but then again, the skeptic will also claim that no such templates exist. Consequently, we are free to adopt the reason model in one context, the familiarity in another, etc., and worries about their susceptibility to why-regresses, asymmetries and the like are also constrained by context-specific interests, background beliefs, etc. Now, it may be the case that these worries crop up more frequently when deploying these kinds of explanations than, e.g. causal explanations, but the skeptic argues that this is simply a contingent fact emerging from most people's attitudes towards explanations, but is not thereby written into the "nature" of explanation. </span></div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-39234774734726110882012-02-27T09:37:00.001-05:002012-02-27T09:40:17.653-05:00Week 3: Explanation and Induction<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;">In addition to questions about realism, Lipton aims to settle issues about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">inductive inference </i>(Chapter 1). In short, his claim is that despite the apparent diversity of inductive inferences, many of them can be captured as special cases of a pattern of reasoning called Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE). Lycan </span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">(</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_5" title="Lycan, 2002 #626"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Garamond; text-decoration: none;">2002</span></a><span style="font-family: Garamond;">)</span><span style="font-family: Garamond;"> lays out a more general program, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">explanationism</i>, of which Lipton’s can be seen as a special case. We’ll also read Laurence Bonjour’s short review of the major problems of induction.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;"> Neither Lipton nor Lycan take themselves to be tackling the classic, Humean problem of induction—what Lipton calls the “problem of justification.” The problem of justification asks, “How are we ever entitled to believe things on the basis of inductive inference?” Instead, they take themselves to be addressing the “problem of description,” in which the problem is to devise an elegant classification of the kinds of inductive inferences we take as warranted.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;"> Solutions to the two problems can be separated. The problem of description—at least as construed by Lipton and Lycan--only assumes that some inductive inferences <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">appear </i>justified, and aims to explain this appearance in terms of explanatory roles played by the conclusions of these inferences. It could turn out that this is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">merely </i>an appearance of justification, in which case the problem of description would be entirely distinct from the problem of justification. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;"> Conversely, solutions to the problem of justification can proceed without a very detailed classification/description of our inductive practices. All inductive inferences share certain features—e.g. that the premises of an inductive inference can be true whilst its conclusion be false. Furthermore, it’s precisely these common features that drive the problem of justification. Consequently, if we can justify the assumptions concerning these features, then we don’t need any further description of the kinds of inductive inferences that we employ.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;"> Of course, there’s nothing that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">prohibits</i> concerns about description and justification from informing one another. In particular, if we think that the “meta-philosophy” that underwrites Humean skepticism unreasonably privileges philosophical reflection over other kinds methods, then explanationism might be justified in part by its ability to provide a good classification/description of our inductive practices. (Compare: our theory of atomic structure is justified in part by the periodic table’s ability to provide a good classification of the elements.) Indeed, Lipton gestures towards this maneuver later in his book.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond;">So why should we care about the relationship between explanation and truth? In addition to the issues about realism raised last week, considerations about explanation also promise to offer a powerful description of our inductive practices. Since induction figures prominently in nearly all of our inquiries, this means that explanation would figure prominently in most of our inquiries. Consequently, if the connection between explanation and truth is tenuous, then we have to adjudicate between several scenarios: (1) that our inquiries properly aim for explanation/understanding but only incidentally aim for truth, (2) that our inquiries properly aim for truth but only incidentally aim for explanation/understanding, or (3) that our inquiries only incidentally aim for truth and only incidentally aim for explanation/understanding. So our self-conception as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">inquirers </i>is at stake! That’s why we should care.</span></div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-8427134683859001442012-02-20T08:22:00.000-05:002012-02-20T08:22:25.364-05:00Week 2: Explanation and Realism<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;">Last week, I asked (among other things), “Why should we care about the relationship between explanation, understanding, and truth?” One answer to this question is that explanatory considerations are frequently used to argue for the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">objectivity </i>of our discourses Specifically, IBE is used to justify various forms of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">realism</i>. Broadly construed, realists claim that some philosophically controversial part of our discourse (e.g. about unobservable entities in science, about the external world, other minds, morality) refers to mind-independent truths. Realists who do this via IBE claim that these mind-independence truths best explain the relevant evidence. Hence, realists who deploy IBE claim that there is an intimate relationship between our best explanations and the truth. Indeed, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">anybody </i>who uses IBE seems committed to this claim. After all, a good inference transmits the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">truth</i> of its premises to its conclusion. So, endorsing IBE entails accepting that good explanations are a reliable guide to truth. (People might disagree about whether mind-independent truths best explain the relevant evidence, as Harman and Frost-Arnold do in our readings.)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There are at least three related domains in which IBE is used to justify realism. First, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">scientific </i>realists argue that claims about the unobservable posits of scientific theories (e.g. subatomic particles) are true because otherwise the success of science would be unexplained. This is called “The No-Miracles Argument,” and it has received its fair share of criticism, e.g. </span><span style="font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_2" title="Frost-Arnold, 2010 #1613"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Garamond; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Frost-Arnold 2010</span></a><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-no-proof: yes;">)</span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, we’ll skim Thagard’s </span><span style="font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=7664137943824779209#_ENREF_8" title="Thagard, 2000 #194"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Garamond; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2000</span></a><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-no-proof: yes;">)</span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">’s chapter, “Reality,” to get a sense of how IBE can justify realism about certain <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">metaphysical</i> issues. Finally, we’ll read Harman’s “Ethics & Explanation,” which denies <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">moral</i> realism on the grounds that it does NOT provide the best explanation of the relevant phenomena. Finally, we’ll read Sturgeon’s “Moral Explanations” for a rebuttal of Harman’s position.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>So, one answer to the “Why care?” question is that you should care about the relationship between explanation and truth because it figures prominently in discussions about the objectivity of various kinds of discourse. To that end, it would be good to know:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">Whether IBE provides a sound justification for this position.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">If IBE can’t provide such a justification, whether it’s more defensible to:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">Reject realism (i.e. become an <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antirealist</i>), or </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Garamond;">Find a different justification for realism.</span></div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-54622641431069242552012-02-06T07:26:00.000-05:002012-02-06T08:47:50.882-05:00Integrating my teaching and my academic blogging<div style="font-family: inherit;">So my blogging has fizzled miserably since its hot start a year ago. To revive it, I'll be weaving it into my senior seminar, <a href="http://s12.middlebury.edu/PHIL0425A">Concepts of Explanation (PHIL0425)</a>. My students will help me to use this blog more frequently. To get the ball rolling, here's the first entry for the seminar. <style>
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</style> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit; text-align: center;">-------- </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;">In this seminar, I want you to see how professional philosophy papers are made. In particular, you’ll be looking over my shoulder as I develop two related papers:</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">(1)<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>I’ll be weighing in on a debate about whether understanding entails true beliefs, and if so, which true beliefs such understanding entails.</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">(2)<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>I’ll be revising a theory of explanation that I’ve <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02691728.2010.506960">already put to print</a>, largely in light of:</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-family: inherit; margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">a.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Flaws that I see with my initial formulation; and</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="font-family: inherit; margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">b.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Some views about explanation and understanding that I’ve developed since publishing that paper.</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;">I want to stress that this is not a linear process; there will be missteps. Furthermore, these two projects have very different structures. I haven’t written a lick of the first, and haven’t even done the relevant background reading—this will be part of our task for the seminar. For the second, I’ve basically devoted my whole (though still relatively young) career to doing background reading. Yet, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">oddly</i>, I feel much more prepared to write the first! Ask me about this…</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: 0.25in;">To appreciate what I’m doing with these two papers, I’ll need to bring you up to speed on the following:</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>What are the dominant views about understanding in the philosophical literature?</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>What are the dominant views about the relationship between understanding and true belief in the literature?</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>What are the dominant views about explanation in the literature?</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;">Lest the first two questions look unrelated to the third, observe that we frequently expect a good explanation to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">provide</i> understanding. This leads to two more questions:</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>What does it mean for an explanation to “provide” understanding?</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Why do philosophers care about the relationships between understanding, explanation, and true belief?</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;">One of our textbooks, <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Inference-Explanation-International-Library-Philosophy/dp/0415242029/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1328535450&sr=8-1">Peter Lipton's <i>Inference to the Best Explanation </i>(2004)</a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>provides a nice touchstone for addressing many of these questions. By supplementing several of Lipton’s chapters with additional readings, I’ll get you up to speed on these questions.</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<h2 style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Weeks 1 through 3: Why care?</span></h2><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<h3 style="font-family: inherit;">Week 1: Preliminaries</h3><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;">For the most part, we’ll be focusing on the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">epistemological </i>dimensions of explanation. In other words, how do we know that we have a correct explanation, and how do correct explanations advance our knowledge? Since many (all?) of you aren’t familiar with epistemology, we’ll read <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-through-Subject-C-Grayling/dp/0198751575/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1328530880&sr=8-1">Sturgeon</a>’s quick rundown of its major ideas. Thereafter, we’ll delve into the concept that weaves the ideas of explanation, understanding, and truth together: Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE). Its general form is:</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> </div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>q best explains p.</u></i></div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>So, (probably) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q.</i></div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit;">A more precise version of both IBE and its relationship to induction comes from<a href="http://www.unc.edu/%7Eujanel/Moser.htm"> Lycan (2002)</a>, <a href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/2025686">Thagard (1978)</a>, and subsequent chapters in Lipton’s book. We'll read these as well. Here are some things that would be good for you to think about:<br />
<ol><li>Think of two potential explanations for the same phenomenon: one of these should be very plausible and the other really outlandish.</li>
<li>Do the "theoretical virtues" that Lycan and Thagard mention favor the plausible one?</li>
<li>Can you think of cases where IBE would lead us astray, i.e. where our best explanations aren't likely to be true? What are the more general concerns ("structural defects") with IBE this raises?</li>
</ol><br />
</div><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-31796425665581234922011-02-09T18:56:00.000-05:002011-02-09T18:56:33.142-05:00Longino on the Theoretical Virtues<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Times;">So I’ve just read Helen Longino’s work on the theoretical virtues:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in -0.5in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Times;">Longino, H. E. (1994), "In search of feminist epistemology", <i>Monist</i> 77 (4):472-485.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in -0.5in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Times;">——— (1995), "Gender, politics, and the theoretical virtues", <i>Synthese</i> 104 (3):383-397.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in -0.5in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Times;">——— (1997), "Feminist Epistemology as a Local Epistemology", <i>Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume</i> 71 (1):19-36.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Times;">(For those who are interested, I don’t think you lose much if you just read the 1997 article, as there’s quite a bit of redundancy, and, in my estimate, Longino’s argument gets clearer over time.)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Times;">In these articles, Longino argues:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>(1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">There are <i>traditional</i> theoretical virtues </span><span style="font-family: Times;">that work in certain contexts</span><span style="font-family: Times;">, e.g. empirical adequacy, conservatism (external consistency), simplicity, unification, scope, fruitfulness, and refutability.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>(2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">There are also <i>feminist </i>theoretical virtues that work in other contexts, e.g. empirical adequacy, novelty, ontological heterogeneity, complexity/mutuality of interactions, applicability to human needs, and decentralization/universalization of power.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>(3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Neither of these sets of virtues is intrinsically epistemic, i.e. it doesn’t appear that the virtues have a very obvious link with truth. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>(4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Rather, the epistemic significance of these virtues is always relative to the cognitive goals of the communities that use them.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>a)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">In feminist inquiry, this is the goal of “revealing gender,” e.g. identifying gender biases that have been operant in scientific inquiry.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>b)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">It’s unclear what cognitive goals Longino takes the traditional virtues to serve, but both feminist critics and advocates of these virtues (e.g. Hugh Lacey) have taken control and manipulation (e.g. as found in experimental settings) to be a plausible candidate.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>(5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Longino then situates these ideas within her four social-epistemological criteria:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>a)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Provision of venues for the articulation of criticism;</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>b)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Uptake (rather than mere toleration) of criticism;</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>c)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Public standards to which discursive interactions are referenced; </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>d)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">Equality of intellectual authority for all (qualified) members of the community.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span>(6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times;">“Within this scheme the traditional and alternative virtues constitute partially overlapping, but distinctive sets of public community standards [i.e. item (5.c)].” (1997, p. 29)</span><span style="font-family: Times;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Times;">Longino’s argument, particularly premise (3), leaves much to be desired. But I won’t quibble with it in the current project, since that would amount to an external critique, and my goal is to provide an immanent one. I want to suggest that, unlike the feminist virtues, the traditional virtues play a special role in item (5.b), i.e. uptake of criticism. Without playing my hand just yet, the virtues need not be guides to truth, but only guides to warranted acceptance (not belief!) of a theory. </span></div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-58187214083387236642011-02-07T19:08:00.000-05:002011-02-07T19:08:24.742-05:00Fine-Tuning Our Distinctions<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <style>
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</style> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Thus far, I’ve framed the S&V literature in terms of "doing good science," viz.</span></div><ol style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><span style="font-size: small;">A value is constitutive of science if and only if it is necessary for doing good science.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span></span>A value is contextual in science if and only if it is sometimes (but not always) useful for doing good science.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span></span>A value is invariant in science if and only if it is always useful for doing good science.</span></li>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">I think this is too loosely formulated. Since I’ll be focusing primarily on the theoretical virtues, I’m interested in a much narrower set of values, namely those that are predicated of theories as criteria of acceptance. It's my sense that the following fairly glosses what most have meant by the constitutive-contextual distinction: </span></div><ol style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><span style="font-size: small;">A value V is <u>constitutive</u> of theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>all</i> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T is <b>necessary</b> for being justified in the acceptance of T. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;">A value V is <u>contextual</u> in theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>some (but not all)</i> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T provides <b>some</b> justification for the acceptance of T.</span></li>
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</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">If that's right, then we have two important dimensions by which to catalog values in science. The first is the <i>scope</i> of theories to which the value applies (which I've italicized), and the second is the value's <b>justificatory role </b>(in boldface). Minimally, invariant and constitutive values have the same scope: they apply to <i>all</i> theories. </span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">However, I want to suggest that we consider three justificatory roles: <b>necessity </b>(as illustrated by our new definition of constitutive values), <b>contributing </b>(as illustrated by our new definition of contextual values), and <b>sufficiency </b>(which provides a natural foil to necessity). This would then suggest a stronger and a weaker brand of invariantism about values:</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">3. A value V is <u>invariantly strong</u> in theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>all</i> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T is <b>sufficient</b> for being justified in the acceptance of T. </span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">4. A value V is <u>invariantly contributes</u> to theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>all</i> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T provides <b>some</b> justification for the acceptance of T. </span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">I note in passing that we can do the same thing with contextual values. In this case, i.e. </span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">2 (revised). A value V <u>contextually contributes</u> to theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>some (but not all)</i> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T provides <b>some</b> justification for the acceptance of T.</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">5. A value V is <u>contextually strong</u> in theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>some (but not all) </i><b>sufficient</b> for being justified in the acceptance of T.</span> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T is </div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">6. A value V is <u>contextually necessary</u> in theory acceptance if and only if, for <i>some (but not all) </i><b>necessary</b> for being justified in the acceptance of T.</span> theories T, correctly identifying V as a property of T is </div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">These won't be part of my story, but it's useful to observe that we should have a six-part distinction instead of a bipartite one, as has been the norm. As for me, I'm leaning towards claiming that the virtues are invariantly strong, though I'll have to do more work before I make a firm decision on this. Otherwise, I'll claim that they're invariant contributors.</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-84972270791307513322011-02-04T15:22:00.000-05:002011-02-04T15:22:10.882-05:00More on the Constitutive-Contextual-Invariant Distinction<style>
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I just hunted down the exact Longino quote that baptizes the distinction between contextual and constitutive values, and wanted to compare it to yesterday's musings:<br />
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<blockquote>I will call the values generated from an understanding of the goals of science constitutive values to indicate that they are the source of the rules determining what constitutes acceptable scientific practice or scientific method. The personal, social, and cultural values, those group or individual preferences about what ought to be, I will call contextual values to indicate that they belong to the social and cultural environmental in which science is done.<br />
<i>Science as Social Knowledge</i>, p. 4.</blockquote>This is Longino’s clearest account of the distinction. Let’s try to unpack it. First, there is an assumption that constitutive values are “the source of rules.” Moreover, they appear to be the source of rules that tell us what to do, as "practices and methods" are naturally seen as actions. However, constitutive values are not the same as goals, as the latter “generate” the former. Goals naturally function in rules as follows: <br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span> </span>If one wants to achieve goal G, then one ought to do A.</div><div class="MsoNormal">But where are the values in this? Either G is valuable, or A is (instrumentally) valuable because it is a means to achieving G. That suggests the following:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">(L1) A value is constitutive of science if and only if it is either a goal of science or it is a necessary means of achieving a goal of science.</div><div class="MsoNormal">I’ve added that the means must be necessary, because otherwise, a means works in some contexts but not others, which <i>prima facie, </i>sounds like a contextual value. Note that this gets us something very close to yesterday’s gloss. Now let’s tease out Longino’s definition of contextual values:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">(L2) A value is contextual in science if and only if some but not all practitioners of a science take it to be valuable. </div><div class="MsoNormal">This is not quite the same as yesterday’s account of contextual values, as that made no reference to whether practitioners <i>take</i> something to be valuable or not. This yields an odd consequence: if some scientist does not take a constitutive value to be valuable, then it is contextual. But this doesn’t leave any room for the scientist to be just plain wrong in his evaluations. For instance, logical consistency is presumably a non-negotiable value, so a contradiction-loving scientist seems to be doing something more suspect than expressing an “individual preference,” as Longino puts it. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><span> </span>Yesterday’s constitutive-contextual distinction blocks this, since it requires the value to be <b>useful</b> for doing good science some of the times. Something can be useful even if nobody takes it as such and somebody can value something that is useless, so scientists’ attitudes don’t determine contextual values. As a result, I’m sticking with that distinction, since it seems tidier. Moreover, I’m holding fast to distinguishing invariant and constitutive values.</div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7664137943824779209.post-43932213567515867922011-02-03T15:53:00.000-05:002011-02-03T15:53:59.701-05:00Science and Values, Part 1: The Constitutive-Contextual Distinction<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal">I’m beginning to research my next essay, which touches on that thorny issue of “science & values” [S&V]. I hope to be blogging quite a bit about this, as I have quite a bit of background reading to do. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">I begin with a well-known distinction in the S&V literature, which is primarily associated with Helen Longino.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span><span>(1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A value is constitutive of science if and only if it is necessary for doing good science.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span><span>(2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A value is contextual in science if and only if it is sometimes (but not always) useful for doing good science.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">While it marks a subtle change, I want to suggest that we offer something that falls in between (1) and (2):</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span><span>(3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A value is invariant in science if and only if it is always useful for doing good science.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">What’s the difference between constitutive and invariant values? It is possible for something to be always useful and yet not necessary for doing an activity well. For instance, having an accurate three point shot is always useful, but not necessary, for being a good basketball player.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In the paper I’m working on, I’ll suggest that several “theoretical virtues,” e.g. simplicity, scope, precision, etc. are invariant scientific values. Moreover, I’ll be arguing that some of the most vociferous critics of the virtues should accept this claim, given their other commitments. I suspect that they have resisted this claim because the constitutive-contextual distinction poses a false dilemma. The true dilemma is between invariant and contextual values, with constitutive values simply being a particularly demanding form of invariant values.</div>KKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07535420083612229353noreply@blogger.com0